ANAPHY REVIEWER - produce movements for bones

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN BODY: AN
- FAST ACTING control system
ORIENTATION
- Responds to internal & external s:muli
- SENSORY RECEPTORS – detects changes
ANATOMY - is the study of the structure and - Messages are sent to the CENTRAL NERVOUS
shape of the body (large body structures) SYSTEM – assesses informa:on & ac:vates
effector
PHYSIOLOGY - is the study of how the body and ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
its parts work or funcDon - secretes chemical molecules called
hormones into the blood
GROSS ANATOMY - is the study of anatomical - Body Func9ons controlled by hormones:
structures that can be seen by the naked eye o Growth
o Reproduc9on
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY - is the study of Dny o use of nutrients
anatomical structures such as 9ssues and cells - Endocrine Gland includes:
o Pituitary Gland
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION o Thyroid & Parathyroid
o Adrenal Gland
o Thymus
o Pancreas
o Pineal Gland
o Ovaries & Testes
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
- Heart – pumps blood; blood vessels –
transports blood to 9ssues
- Blood transports oxygen & carbon dioxide,
nutrients, & hormones
NASAL FLARING – nostrils widen while
breathing
RBC – hemoglobin & oxygen
WBC – fights infec9on
PLATELETS – for blood cloPng
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PLASMA - liquid por9on of blood
- external covering of the body (skin)
including the hair and fingernails ARTERY – carries blood AWAY from the heart
- waterproofs the body (malinis)
- cushions and protects the deeper 9ssues VEINS – carries blood TOWARDS the heart
- sunlight = produces vitamin D (madumi)
- excretes salts in perspira9on (sweaDng)
- regulate body temperature LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
- Sensory receptors located in the skin alert - lympha9c vessels, lymph nodes, lymphoid
us to what is happening at the body surface. organs
SKELETAL SYSTEM (206 BONES) - returning leaked fluids to bloodstream
- bones, car9lages, and joints - lymph nodes/other lymphoid organs help to
- supports the body & provides a framework cleanse the blood
that causes movement - house WBC involved in immunity – resist
- protects vital organs (ex. Skull) against infec9on
- sites where blood cells are formed ARTERY/VEINS – maliit
- acts as a storehouse for minerals (CALCUIM) ARTERIOLES/VENULES – Malaki
MUSCULAR SYSTEM (620 MUSCLES) CELL has a SEMI PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
- to contract, or shorten for movements to occurs – allows small par9cles to pass through
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, lungs
- supplies oxygen; remove carbon dioxide
- ALVEOLI – allows exchange of gasses
- ASPIRATION - something enters your airway
or lungs
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small &
large intes9ne, rectum, accessory organs
- Breaks down food
- Allows nutrient absorp9on to blood
- Eliminates indiges9ble material (feces)
CARBS/SUGAR – glucose
PROTIEN – amino acids
FATS – faUy acids
URINARY SYSTEM
- Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
- Eliminates nitrogenous waste
- Maintains acid-base balance
- Regulates water & electrolyte balance
- Regulate normal blood pressure (renin)
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM – produce offspring
MAINTAINING LIFE: NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
1. MAINTAINING BOUNDARIES – separates
“inside” from “outside”
2. MOVEMENT – locomo9on (loc to another)
- - Movement of substance
3. RESPONSIVENES (irritability) – ability to
sense change & react
VasoconstricDon - narrowing of blood
vessels (taas bp)
VasodilaDon – widening of blood vessels
(baba bp)
SepDcemia – infec9on in blood
4. DIGESTION – breakdown & absorp9on of
nutrients
5. METABOLISM – chemical reac9ons within
the body
- - Breaks down complex to
smaller molecules
- - Build larger from smaller
molecules
- - Produces ATP
6. EXCRETION – eliminates excreta (waste)
through urine, feces, sweat
7. REPRODUCTION – occurs on cellular
organism level
o Cellular – new cells are used for growth
and repair
o Organism – reproduc9ve system
handles the task
8. GROWTH – increases the cell size or body
size (increase no. of cells)
SURVIVAL NEEDS
1. NUTRIENTS – chemicals used for
energy and cell building (carbs,
proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals)
2. OXYGEN – required for chemical
reac9on
- - coopera9on of respiratory
& cardiovascular
3. WATER – 60% to 80% of body weight
- - most abundant chemical
- - fluid base for se/excre9on
4. NORMAL BODY TEMP – 37°C or 98.6 F
Below – can make a reac9on slow
and stop
Above - chemical reac9ons
proceeds to rapidly
5. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE – must be
appropriate for gas exchange
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY ANATOMICAL
POSITION – standard posi9on used to avoid
confusion
- - posi9on regardless of the actual body
posi9on
ORIENTATIONAL & DIRECTIONAL TERMS
SUPERIOR (cephalic) – upper part; above
INFERIOR (caudal) -lower part; below
ANTERIOR (ventral) – in front of
POSTERIOR (dorsal) – behind
MEDIAL – midline of the body
LATERAL – away from the midline of the body
INTERMEDIATE – a more medial & more lateral
SUPERFICIAL (external) – at body surface
DEEP (internal) – more internal
BODY PLANES & SECTIONS
SECTION – internal structures of the body
PLANE – through the body wall or organ; made
along imaginary like
SAGITTAL SECTION – cut along lengthwise or
longitudinal plane of the body
MEDIAN (midsagi`al) SECTION – right & lep
parts are equal
FRONTAL (coronal) SECTION -anterior &
posterior parts are cut
TRANSVERSE (cross0 SECTION – superior &
inferior parts
BODY CAVITIES
DORSAL BODY CAVITY
- CRANIAL BODY CAVITY – space in skull/
brain
- SPINAL CAVITY – cranial cavity to end of the
spinal cord
VENTRAL BODY CAVITY
- THORACIC CAVITY – separated from the rest
of the ventral cavity
DIAPHRAGM – dome-shaped muscle
MEDIASTINUM – separates lungs into lep
and right cavi9es
- ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY – inferior to
diaphragm
- ABDOMINAL CAVITY – stomach, liver,
intes9ne & other organs
- PELVIC CAVITY – reproduc9ve organs,
bladders, rectum
OTHER BODY CAVITIES
ORAL & DIGESTIVE CAVITY – teeth, tongue;
con9nuous w/diges9ve organs to anus
NASAL CAVITY – within/posterior to the nose ;
part of respiratory
ORBITAL CAVITIES – skull house the eyes and
present them in an anterior posi9on
MIDDLE EAR CAVITIES – 9ny bones that transmit
sound vibra9ons to the hearing receptors.
HOMEOSTASIS
– body’s ability to maintain stable internal
condi9ons even though the outside world
is con9nuously changing.
– Homeo – the same; stasis – standing s9ll
CONTROL SYSTEMS
RECEPTORS monitors and responds to changes in
environment. It responds to such changes, called
sDmuli, by sending informa9on (input) to the
second component, the control center.
Informa9on flows from the receptor to the control
center along the efferent pathway. The
CONTROL CENTER - analyzes the informa9on;
determines response/course of ac9on.
EFFECTOR, provides the means for the control
center’s response (output) to the s9mulus.
Informa9on flows from the control center to the
effector along the afferent pathway
FEEDBACK – influence the s9mulus
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – reducing the amount of
change
POSITIVE FEEDBACK – increasing the amount of
change
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
- As we age, our body organs become less
efficient, and our internal condi9ons
become less and less stable
CHAPTER 2: BASIC CHEMISTRY
MATTER – anything that occupies space & has
mass
ELEMENTS - fundamental units of maUer
- - 96% of the body is made from these 4
elements
Oxygen oxida9on of glucose and other
(O) food fuels, during which cellular
energy (ATP) is produced.
Carbon carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
(C) and nucleic acids.
Hydrogen component of most organic
(H) molecules; as an ion (charged
atom), it influences the pH of
body fluids.
Nitrogen component of proteins and
(N) nucleic acids (gene9c material)
Calcium – for muscle contrac9on, neural
transmission and blood cloPng
Phosphorus – present in nucleic acid & many
Proteins; forms parts of the high-energy
compound ATP
Potassium - conduc9on of nerve impulses and for
muscle contrac9on.
Sulfur - component of proteins
Sodium - important for water balance, conduc9on
of nerve impulses, and muscle contrac9on
Chlorine - most abundant extracellular anion
Magnesium - cofactor for enzyme ac9vity in a
number of metabolic reac9ons.
Iodine - to make func9onal thyroid hormones.
Iron - component of the hemoglobin molecule
(transports oxygen within red blood cells) and
enzymes. TEMPERATURE – turn more rapidly &
collide more forcefully
RED - nutrients
WHITE - infec9on
PLATELETS - cloPng
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
A – vision
D – regulates calcium
E – wound healing; fer9lity
K – blood cloPng & bones
PROTEINS
- Construc9on materials for body 9ssues
- Increase osmo9c pressure (stop flow)
- Vital role in cell func9on
- Building blocks called amino acids
CHAPTER 3: CELLS AND TISSUES
CELLS
- Structural units of all living things
- 50 – 100 trillion cells
SOMATIC CELLS / SEX CELLS
- egg & sperm
OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
THE CELL THEORY
- A cell is the basic structural and func9onal
unit of living organisms; proper9es of life.
- The ac9vity of an organism depends on the
collec9ve ac9vi9es of its cells.
- According to the principle of
complementarity, the ac9vi9es of cells are
dictated by their structure (anatomy), which
determines func9on (physiology).
- Con9nuity of life has a cellular basis.
MOST CELLS ARE COMPOSED OF: (60% water)
1. Oxygen 3. Hydrogen
2. Carbon 4. Nitrogen
PARTS OF CELL
1. Nucleus – control center; contains DNA
(building proteins & cell reproduc9on)
3 REGIONS
Nuclear Envelope
- Consists of a double membrane that bounds
the nucleus
- Contains nuclear pores that allow for
exchange of material with the rest of the cell
- Encloses the jellylike fluid called the
nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
- Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining
nucleoli
- Sites of ribosome assembly
- Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm
through nuclear pores to serve as the site of
protein synthesis
 ChromaDn
- Composed of DNA
- ScaUered throughout the nucleus and
present when the cell is not dividing
- Condenses to form dense, rodlike bodies
called chromosomes when the cell divides
2. Plasma Membrane
- Transparent barrier for cell contents
- Contains cell contents
- Separates cell contents from outside
o Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar
“heads” are oriented on the inner and
outer surfaces of the membrane
o Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar
“tails” form the center (interior) of the
membrane
NOTE!!! Protein in water affects osmosis
Glycogen stored form of glucose
Glycoproteins are branched sugars aUached to
proteins that abut the extracellular space
Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, s9cky, sugar-rich area on
the cell’s surface
3. Cytoplasm
- material outside the nucleus and inside the
plasma membrane
- Site of most cellular ac9vi9es
- Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF CYTOPLASM
1. Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other
elements and contains nutrients
and electrolytes
2. Inclusions: Chemical substances,
such as stored nutrients or cell
products, that float in the cytosol
3. Organelles: Metabolic machinery
of the cell that perform func9ons
for the cell
MITOCHONDRIA
- POWERHOUSE of the cell
- Carry out reac9ons in which oxygen is used to
break down food into ATP molecules
RIBOSOMES
- Made of protein and ribosomal RNA
- Sites of protein synthesis in the cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETEICULUM (ER)
- Fluid-filled funnels (canals) that carry
substances within the cell
ROUGH ER – abundant in cells that make and
export of proteins
SMOOTH ER - lack of ribosomes; Func9ons in
lipid metabolism; Detoxifica9on of drugs and
pes9cides
GOLGI APPARATUS
- Modifies and packages proteins arriving from
the rough ER via transport vesicles
LYSOSOMES
- La9n word “lysis” means ”to destroy”
- Membranous “bags” that contain diges9ve
enzymes
PERIXOSOMES
- Break down free radicals (highly reac9ve
chemicals)
- Free radicals are converted to hydrogen
peroxide and then to water
CYTOSKELETON
- La9n word “cyto” means cell; cytology –
study of cell
- Provides the cell with an internal framework
that determines cell shape
CELL EXTENSION
- Cilia move materials across the cell surface
(to move mucus)
- Flagella propel the cell (only flagellated cell in
the human body is sperm)
- Microvilli are 9ny, fingerlike extensions of
the plasma membrane (Increase surface area
for absorp9on)
CELLS THAT CONNECTS BODY PARTS
FIBROBLAST
o “blast” means to build
o Secretes cable-like fibers
ERYTHROCYTES
o “erythro” means red; “cyte” means cell
o Carries oxygen in the bloodstream
CELLS THAT COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS
o EPITHELIAL CELL – packs together in
sheets; Intermediate fibers resist tearing
during rubbing or pulling
CELLS THAT MOVE ORGANS AND BODY PARTS
o SKELETAL MUSCLE & SMOOTH MUSCLE
CELLS - Contrac9le filaments allow cells
to shorten forcefully
CELLS THAT STORES NUTRIENTS
o FAT CELLS - Lipid droplets stored in
cytoplasm
CELLS THAT FIGHTS DISEASE TYPES OF DIFFUSION
o WBC such as the macrophage(kumakain) SIMPLE DIFFUSION - small enough to pass
“phago” means “to eat” through membrane pores
o Digests infec9ous microorganisms 1. OSMOSIS - simple diffusion of water
CELL THAT GATHERS INFORMATION AND across a selec9vely permeable membrane
CONTROLS BODY FUNCTIONS Isotonic soluDons have the same
o NERVE CELLS or neurons solute; no visible changes in the cell
CELLS OF REPRODUCTION Hypertonic soluDons contain more
o OOCYTE – female solutes than the cells do; the cells will
o SPERM – male begin to shrink
- Built for swimming to the egg for fer9liza9on Hypotonic soluDons contain fewer
solutes (more water) than the cells do;
CELLS HAVE THE ABILITY TO: cells will plump
o Metabolize FACILITATED DIFFUSION - Transports lipid-
o Digest food insoluble and large substances
o Dispose of wastes
o Reproduce PASSIVE PROCESSES
o Grow FILTRATION - Water and solutes are forced
o Move through a membrane by fluid, or hydrosta9c,
o Respond to a sDmulus pressure

MEMBRANE TRANSPORT TISSUES

SOLUTION – homogenous mixture of 2 - Groups of cells with similar structure and
components func9on
SOLVENT - dissolving medium (main
solvent is water) EPITHELIAL TISSUE
SOLUTE - components in smaller Loca9ons:
quan99es within a solu9on § Body coverings - Cover and line body
INTRACELLULAR FLUID surfaces
- Solu9on containing gases, nutrients, and § Body linings - form sheets with one free,
salts dissolved in water the apical, and anchored surface, the
LYMPH – fluids basement membrane
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID (intersDDal fluid) § Glandular Dssue - Avascular (no blood
- Contains thousands of ingredients, such as supply); regenerates easily if well
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmiUers, nourished
salts, waste products Func9ons;
§ Protec9on
TWO BASIC METHODS OF TRANSPORT § Absorp9on
PASSIVE – energy is NOT needed § Filtra9on
ACTIVE – energy is NEEDED CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- SIMPLE – one layer
DIFFUSION - STRATIFIED – more than one layer
- There is movement from high concentra9on SHAPE OF CELLS
to low concentra9on - SQUAMOUS – flaUened; like fish scales
- KineDc energy (energy of mo9on) causes - CUBOIDAL – cube-shaped; like dine
the molecules to move about randomly - COLUMNAR – shaped like columns

CHEMICAL REACTIONS CONNECTIVE TISSUE

KINETIC ENERGY - Found everywhere in the body to connect
SIZE OF PARTICLES – the smaller the faster body parts
TEMPERATURE – higher temp the faster - Includes the most abundant and widely
CONCENTRATION – concentrated is faster distributed 9ssues
 FUNCTIONS
o Protec9on
o Support
o Binding
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX - Nonliving material that
surrounds living cells
TWO MAIN ELEMENTS OF EXTRACELLULAR
MATRIX
1. GROUND SUBSTANCE - mostly water, along
with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide
molecules
2. FIBERS
o Collagen (white) fibers
o Elas9c (yellow) fibers
o Re9cular fibers (a type of collagen)
BONE (osseous 9ssue)
- Osteocytes (bone cells) siPng in lacunae
(cavi9es)
- Hard matrix of calcium salts
- Large numbers of collagen fibers
Func9on is to protect and support the body
CARTILAGE
- Less hard and more flexible than bone
- Chondrocyte (car9lage cell) is the major cell
type
TYPES
1. HYALINE CARTILAGE - Most widespread
type of car9lage
Loca9ons:
Trachea
AUaches ribs to the breastbone
Covers ends of long bones
En9re fetal skeleton prior to birth
Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
2. ELASTIC CARTILAGE (not pictured)-
Provides elas9city
Loca9on:
supports the external ear
3. FIBROCARTILAGE - Highly compressible
Loca9on:
forms cushion like discs between vertebrae
of the spinal column
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE - Main matrix
element is collagen fiber
LOCATIONS:
- Tendons—aUach skeletal muscle to bone
- Ligaments—aUach bone to bone at joints
and are more elas9c than tendons
- Dermis—lower layers of the skin
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Areolar - Sop, pliable 9ssue like “cobwebs”
- Adipose (fat) - Insulates the body; Protects
some organs; Serves as a site of fuel storage
- ReDcular - Delicate network of interwoven
fibers with re9cular cells
Loca9ons
o Lymph nodes
o Spleen
o Bone marrow
MUSCLE TISSUES
- Func9on is to contract, or shorten, to
produce movement
SKELETAL
- aUached to the skeleton and pull on bones or
skin and produces gross body movements or
facial expression
- voluntarily controlled
CARDIAC
- involuntarily controlled
- found only in the heart
SMOOTH (VISCERAL)
- involuntarily controlled
- Found in walls of hollow organs
- PERISTALSIS - series of wave-like muscle
contrac9ons
NERVOUS TISSUE
- to receive and conduct
o Irritability – respond to internal/external
o ConducDvity - transmit impulses and
react to s9mulants.
TISSUE REPAIR
1. Regenera9on - Replacement of destroyed
9ssue by the same kind of cells
2. Fibrosis - Repair by dense (fibrous)
connec9ve 9ssue (scar 9ssue)
NOTE!!
EPITHELIAL TISSUE – regenerates easily
SKELETAL MUSCLE – regenerates poorly
Whether regeneraDon or fibrosis occurs depends
on:
1. Type of 9ssue damaged
2. Severity of the injury
CLEAN CUTS (incisions) heal more successfully
than ragged tears of the 9ssue
EVENTS OF TISSUE REPAIR - Secrete a lubrica9ng fluid to cushion organs
InflammaDon sets the stage moving against each other during muscle
- Capillaries become very permeable ac9vity
- CloPng proteins migrate into the area from
the bloodstream INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (skin)
- A clot walls off the injured area - Sweat glands
GranulaDon Dssue forms - Oil glands
- Growth of new capillaries - Hair
- Rebuild collagen fibers - Nails
FUNCTIONS
- Insulates (conserva9on of body heat) and
CHAPTER 4: SKIN AND BODY MEMBRANES cushion deeper body organs
- Aids in loss or reten9on of body heat as
BODY MEMBRANES -structure that covers body controlled by the nervous system
membranes - Aids in excre9on of urea and uric acid
- Synthesizes vitamin D
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE Protects the enDre body from:
- Are simple organs o Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
- Covering and lining membranes o Chemical damage (acids and bases)
CUTANEOUS (skin) o Thermal damage (heat or cold)
- Dry membrane o Ultraviolet (UV) radia9on (sunlight)
- Outermost protec9ve boundary o Microbes (bacteria)
EPIDERMIS o Desicca9on (drying out)
DERMIS EPIDERMIS – outer layer
MUCOUS (mucosae) (lungs) - Hard & tough
- Moist membrane - Stra9fied squamous epithelium
- open to the exterior body surface DERMIS – sandwiched between epidermis & hypo
- adapted for absorp9on or secre9on - Connec9ve 9ssue
CONSTRUCTION LAYERS OF DERMIS
Epithelium types depends on site PAPILLARY LAYER
Loose connec9ve 9ssue (lamina propria) - On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase
SEROUS (serosae) (internal) fric9on and gripping ability
- Line open body cavi9es that are closed to the - Fingerprints are iden9fying films of sweat
exterior of the body RETICULAR LAYER
- separated by serous fluid, with a visceral - Blood vessels
(loob) and parietal (labas) layer - Sweat and oil glands
- Deep pressure receptors
SPECIFIC SEROUS MEMBRANES HYPODERMIS – subcutaneous layer
Peritoneum - anchors the skin to underlying organs
- Abdominal cavity - not technically part of the integumentary
Pleura system
- Around the lungs - Composed mostly of adipose 9ssue
Pericardium (peri means heart) - Serves as a shock absorber and insulates
- Around the heart deeper 9ssues

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE – INTACT SKIN

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES (joints)
- Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints MELANIN – pigment produces by melanocytes
- Line bursae - Color is yellow – brown – black
- Line tendon sheaths MERKEL CELLS
- Associated with sensory nerve endings
- serve as touch receptors – MERKEL DISCS
Three pigments contribute to skin color § Release sweat that also contains
o Melanin faUy acids and proteins
Yellow, reddish brown, or § Play a minimal role in body
black pigments temperature regula9on
o Carotene NAIL
§ Orange-yellow pigment from - Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
some vegetables
o Hemoglobin Sty- kuli9w
§ Red coloring from blood cells
in dermal capillaries HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES OF SKIN
§ Oxygen content determines Athlete’s foot
the extent of red coloring - Caused by fungal infec9on (Tinea pedis)
§ CYANOSIS - bluish - Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles
Redness(erythema) - Caused by inflamma9on of hair follicles
- due to embarrassment, inflamma9on, - Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by
hypertension, fever, or allergy bacteria
Pallor (blanching) Cold sores (fever blisters)
- due to emo9onal stress, anemia, low blood - Caused by human herpesvirus 1
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area - Blisters itch and s9ng
Jaundice (yellow cast) Contact dermaDDs
- indicates a liver disorder - Caused by exposure to chemicals that
- Bruises (black and blue marks) —hematomas provoke allergic responses
- Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
APPENDAGES OF THE SKIN ImpeDgo
- Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands - Caused by bacterial infec9on
o Sebaceous glands (secretes sebum-oil) Psoriasis
o Sweat glands - Triggered by trauma, infec9on, hormonal
- Hair changes, or stress
- Hair follicles - Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry,
- Nails silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, or
- Sebaceous (oil) glands some9mes bleed
o Located all over the skin except for palms
and soles ANAPYHLAXIS - Severe allergic
o Produce sebum (oil)
§ Makes skin sop and moist BURNS
§ Prevents hair from becoming - Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat,
briUle electricity, UV radia9on, or chemicals
§ Kills bacteria
- Sweat (sudoriferous) glands HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK - ↓ blood volume ↓ body
o Produce sweat fluids (suka/tae)
o Widely distributed in skin CARDIOGENIC SHOCK – heart failure; can’t pump
Eccrine glands oxygen to brain & vital parts
Produce acidic sweat ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK – severe allergy
- Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic PSYCHOGENIC SHOCK – severe reac9on
waste
- Func9on in body temperature regula9on CHAPTER 5: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
- Apocrine glands Parts of the skeletal system
§ Ducts empty into hair follicles in the - Bones (skeleton)
armpit and genitals - Joints
§ Begin to func9on at puberty - Car9lages
- Ligaments
Two subdivisions of the skeleton
- Axial skeleton
- Appendicular skeleton
FUNCTIONS
- Support the body
- Protect sop organs
o Skull & vertebrae = brain & spinal cord
o Rib cage = thoracic cavity organs
- AUached skeletal muscles allow movement
- Store minerals and fats
o Calcium and phosphorus
o Fat in the internal marrow cavity
- Blood cell forma9on (hematopoiesis)
206 bones for adults
214 bones for kids
Two basic types of osseous (bone) Dssue
1. Compact bone
Dense, smooth, and homogeneous
2. Spongy bone
Small needlelike pieces of bone
Many open spaces
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
- LONG – longer than they are wide; spongey
bones at ends (all the bones in limbs)
- FLAT – thin & flaUened (chest)
- SHORT – cube-shaped (carpal & tarsal)
- IRREGULAR – irregular shape (hip bone)
Long bone anatomy
- DIAPHYSIS (SHAFT)
o Makes up most of bone’s length
o Composed of compact bone
- EPIPHYSIS (ENDS)
o spongy bone enclosed by thin layer of
compact bone
- ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
o Decreases fric9on at joint surfaces
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF SPONGY BONE
- Composed of small, needlelike pieces of bone
called trabeculae and open spaces
- open spaces are filled by marrow, blood
vessels, and nerves
STRUCTURE OF BONE
ORGANIC PARTS (collagen fibers)
- bone make bone flexible and have great
tensile strength
CALCUIM SALTS
- make bone hard to resist compression
FORMATION, GROWTH, AND REMODELING
OSSIFICATION - is the process of bone forma9on
MAJOR PHASES OF OSSIFICATION
- OSTEOBLASTS (bone-forming cells) cover
hyaline car9lage model with bone matrix
- Apposi9onal growth
o Bones grow in width
o OSTEOBLASTS in the periosteum add
bone matrix to the outside of the
diaphysis
o OSTEOCLASTS in the endosteum remove
bone from the inner surface of the
diaphysis
- Bone growth is controlled by hormones, such
as growth hormone and sex hormones
- Calcium ion regula9on
§ Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
§ Released when calcium ion
levels in blood are low
§ Ac9vates osteoclasts (bone-
destroying cells)
§ Osteoclasts break down
bone and release calcium
ions into the blood
§ HYPERCALCEMIA (high blood
calcium levels) prompts calcium
storage to bones by osteoblasts
BONE FRACTURE
FRACTURE – break in a bone
CLOSED (simple) – does not penetrate
OPEN (compound) – penetrates through
CLOSED REDUCTION
- bones are manually coaxed into posi9on by
physician’s hands
OPEN REDUCTION
- bones are secured with pins or wires during
surgery
Healing 9me is 6–8 weeks
AXIAL SKELETON
- forms the longitudinal axis of the body
1. SKULL
- Cranium bones enclose the brain
- Facial bones
o Hold eyes in anterior posi9on
o Allow facial muscles to express feelings
- Mandible – freely movable joint
8 CRANIAL BONES PROTECT THE BRAIN SECONDARY CURVATURES
1 Frontal bone § Spinal curvatures of the cervical
2 Occipital bone and lumbar regions
3 Ethmoid bone § Develop aper birth
4 Sphenoid bone § Form an S-shaped curvature in
5, 6 Parietal bones (pair) adults
7, 8 Temporal bones (pair)
THORACIC CAGE
14 FACIAL BONES - Bony thorax, or thoracic cage, protects
1, 2 Maxillae (pair) organs of the thoracic cavity
3, 4 Pala9ne bones (pair) § Consists of three parts
5, 6 Lacrimal bones (pair) 1. Sternum
7, 8 Zygoma9c bones (pair) 2. Ribs
9, 10 Nasal bones (pair) § True ribs (pairs 1–7)
11 Vomer bone § False ribs (pairs 8–12)
12, 13 Inferior nasal conchae (pair) § Floa9ng ribs (pairs 11–12)
14 Mandible 3. Thoracic vertebrae

PARANASAL SINUSES
- Hollow por9ons of bones surrounding the
nasal cavity
- Func9ons of paranasal sinuses
o Lighten the skull
o Amplify sounds made as we speak

HYOID BONE
- The only bone that does not ar9culate with
another bone
- Serves as a movable base for the tongue

VERTEBRAL COLUMN (Spine)

- Vertebral column provides axial support
o Extends from skull to the pelvis
- 26 vertebral bones are separated by
intervertebral discs
o 7 cervical vertebrae are in the neck
o 12 thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
region
o 5 lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back
o Sacrum (formed by fusion of 5
vertebrae)
o Coccyx (formed by fusion of 3–5
vertebrae)

PRIMARY CURVATURES
§ Spinal curvatures of the thoracic
and sacral regions
§ Present from birth
§ Form a C-shaped curvature in
newborns