Human Anatomy and Physiology 1 Complete Study Notes

Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 8 Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Anatomy and Physiology
Definitions:
• Science: A method of observing/measuring natural phenomenon in order to explain them.
• Chemicals: Substances with molecular composition produced by chemical reactions.
• Human Anatomy: The study of structure or form of human body.
• Human Physiology: The study of body functions.
• Metabolism: The process of living organisms carry number of chemical reaction
• Excretion: Process - organism eliminates waste products created by metabolic processes.
• Response: Ability of organisms to sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment.
• Movement: The movement of between individual cells of an of an entire organism.
• Growth: Building outweighs breaking down processes.
1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms (Properties):

- Cellular Composition (Cell = basic unit of life): Smallest unit carries all functions of life - all
organisms are composed of cells.
- Metabolic Process: Build up or break down substances depending on needs of organism.
- Growth (2 forms): Increase in size of individual cells and Increase in number of cells.
- Reproduction (2 forms):
• Individual cells reproduce within organism during growth and to replace damaged/old cells.
• Organism itself reproduces to yield similar offspring.
1.2 Levels of Structure Organisation:

- Body is constructed from a series of progressive large “blocks;” - each type is a structural level
of organisation.
1) Chemical level:
• Smallest level is foundation for each successive level.
• Ranges from tiny atoms to complex chemical structures called molecules
• composed of between 2 to 1000’s of atoms.
2) Cellular level:
• Formed by groups of many different types of molecules,
• combined in specific ways to form cellular structures.
3) Tissue level: 2 or more cell types cooperate to perform a common function.
• Consist of 2 components - cells and surrounding extracellular matrix;
• Vary from membrane sheets that cover body cavities to irregularly shaped cartilage found in
nose.
4) Organ level:
• Consists of 2 or more tissue types combined to form a structure or organ;
• Has a recognisable shape and performs a specialised task.
5) Organ system level:
• Body’s organs are grouped into organ systems (Human has 11 organ systems).
• Consist of 2 or more organs that together carry out a broad function in body.
E.g.
• Cardiovascular system: (heart and blood vessels) Transports blood through body.
• Digestive system: Ingests food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates wastes.
6) Organism level: Organ systems function together to make working human body, an organism.
1.3 Body Systems:
System Type: Description (Process)
Integumentary System (Skin) - Protects body form external environment

- Retains water
- Regulates body temperature
- Produces vitamin D
Skeletal System - Supports the body
- Protects internal organs
- Provides leverage for movement
- Produces blood cells
- Stores calcium salts
Muscular System - Produces movement

- Generates heat
- Controls body openings
Nervous System - Regulates body functions
- Provides for sensation and higher mental functions through nerve
impulses
Endocrine System - Regulates body functions

- Regulates functions of:
• Muscles
• Glands
• Other tissues through secretion of chemicals called hormones
Cardiovascular System - Pumps and delivers oxygen-poor blood to the lungs and oxygen rich
blood toward the tissues.
- Removes wastes from tissues.
- Transports cells, nutrients, and other substance.
Respiratory System - Delivers oxygen to the blood
- Removes carbon dioxide from the body
- Maintains the acid-base balance of the blood
Lymphatic System - Returns excess tissue fluid to cardiovascular system
- Provides immunity (Protects against infectious diseases)
Disgestive System - Digests food
- Absorbs nutrients into the blood
- Removes food waste
- Regulates fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
Urinary System - Removes metabolic wastes from the blood

- Regulates fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance
- Stimulates blood cell production
Reproductive System 1) Male
- Sexual function
- Secretes hormones
- Produces/transports sperm
2) Female
- Sexual function
- Produces and transports eggs
- Site of Fetal:
• Development
• Nourishment
• Childbirth and lactation
- Secretes hormones
1.4 Types of Anatomy and Physiology:
- Anatomy:
1) Systemic anatomy: Examines human body by looking at individual organ systems.
2) Regional anatomy: Divides body into regions of study such as head and neck.
3) Surface anatomy: Study of surface markings of body
4) Gross anatomy: Examination of structures that can be seen with unaided eye.
5) Microscopic anatomy: Study of structures that can only be seen with a microscope.
• Histology: Study of tissues.
• Cytology: Study of cells.
- Physiology: Classified by organ or organ system being studied e.g.:

1) Neurophysiology: Studies brain and nerves.
2) Cardiovascular physiology: Studies heart and blood vessels.
1.5 The Language of Anatomy and Physiology:

• Suffixes: Ends with ‘y’
• Prefixes: Ends with ‘i’
• Word roots: Ends with ‘o’
- The Language of A&P is built on a group of word roots - are core components of words with
specific meanings:
- E.g. 1. Neurology: Root = neuro, suffix = ology 2. Pericardium: Prefix = Peri, Root =
cardium 3. Cardiomyopathy: Prefix = Cardi, Root = myo, Suffix = pathy
1.6 Anatomical position:

• Anatomical: common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described.
- Standing upright feet are shoulder width apart, with upper limbs at sides of trunk and head and
palms facing forward
- Always referred to as if it were in
anatomical position, even when it’s in
another position.
- “Right” and “left” always refers to right
and left sides of body being described,
not our own.
Other positional terms:
1) Supine = facing upwards

2) Prone = facing downwards
3) Supra = above
4) Epi = above/upper
5) Infra = below
6) Sub = below/lower
7) Endo/Intra = inside
8) Extra = outside
9) Inter = in between
10) Peri/Para = around/
surrounding
1.7 Directional Terms:
• Directional term: Terms used to ensure communication of the
body parts and markings.
- Anterior (ventral): Towards front, e.g. Chest is anterior towards
the lungs.
- Posterior (dorsal): Towards back, e.g. Lungs is posterior towards
the chest.
- Superior (cranial): Towards head, e.g. Neck is superior to chest.
- Inferior (caudal): Towards tail, e.g. Nose is inferior to forehead.
- Proximal: Closer towards groin, e.g. Knee is proximal to ankle.
- Distal: Further away from point of origin, e.g. Foot is distal to hip.
- Medial: Closer towards midline of body, e.g. Ear is medial to
shoulder
- Lateral: Further away from midline of body, e.g. Shoulder is lateral
to the chest
- Superficial: Closer towards surface, e.g. Skin is superficial to
muscle
- Deep: Further below surface, e.g. Bone is deep to skin.
1.8 Regional terms:

• Regional term: Body can be divided into 2 regions.
- Each broad region can be divided into several smaller regions
1) Axial region: head, neck, and trunk.
2) Appendicular region: upper and lower limbs or appendages.
Other regions of the human body:
Structure Region Structure Region
Cephalon (head) Cephalic region Abdomen Abdominal region
Cervicis (neck) Cervical region Lumbus (loin) Lumbar region
Thoracis (thorax/chest) Thoracic region Gluteus (buttock) Gluteal region
Brachium (arm) Brachial region Pelvis Pelvic region
Antebrachium (forearm) Antebrachial region Pubis (anterior pelvis) Pubic region
Carpus (wrist) Carpal region Inguen (groin) Inguinal region
Manus (hand) Manual region Femur (thigh) Femoral region
Crus (anterior leg) Crural region Coxa (hip) Coxal region
Sura (calf) Sural region
Tarsus (ankle) Tarsal region
Pes (foot) Pedal region
Planta (sole) Plantar

1.9 Planes of section:
- 3 sections provide a studying form and function of a body region by dividing body for
examination:
1) Sagittal: Divides body or body part into right and left sections. (2 types)
• Midsagittal (median plane): Divides body or body part into equal left and right sections.
• Parasagittal: Divides body or body part into unequal left and right sections.
2) Frontal (coronal): Divides body or body part into anterior and posterior sections.
3) Transverse (horizontal): Divides body or body part into superior and inferior sections.
4) Oblique: A less standardised plane, is taken at an angle.
• Useful for examining structures difficult to examine using only 3 primary planes of section.
2.0 The Organisation of the Human Body (Body Cavities):
• Cavity: Any fluid-filled space within body - axial region of body is divided into several cavities.
- Cavities protect internal organs and allows to move/expand as to perform their functions.
- Major Cavities:
1) Dorsal Body Cavity: located on posterior side of body - subdivided into two cavities:
- Cranial cavity: Within skull; protects brain
- Vertebral cavity: Within vertebral column; protects spinal cord.
- Lined with protective layers called meninges.
- Subdivisions are continuous and filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) - protects brain and
spinal cord.
2) Ventral Body Cavity: Separated into two divisions by diaphragm:
- Thoracic cavity and its subdivisions are superior to diaphragm.
- Abdominopelvic cavity and its subdivisions are inferior to diaphragm.
- Lined with serous membranes termed parietal and visceral. (dependant on location)
- Thoracic cavity: Divided into three smaller cavities:
- Pleural cavities - each surround either left or right lung.
- Mediastinum - Between pleural cavities; houses heart, great vessels, trachea, and
oesophagus; Not within serous membrane
- Pericardial cavity - Within mediastinum; within serous membrane that surrounds heart.
- Abdominopelvic cavity: Divided into three smaller cavities:
- Abdominal cavity - spans from diaphragm to bony pelvis)
- Pelvic cavity - (area within bony pelvis)
- Contains organs from several systems (digestive, lymphatic, reproductive, and urinary)
- Peritoneal cavity – abdominal sub-cavity found within sero.
- Abdominopelvic cavity can be divided up into segments or quadrants.

- Imaginary lines that cross at umbilicus divide cavity into 4 quadrants:
1) Right upper quadrant (RUQ)
2) Right lower quadrant (RLQ)
3) Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
4) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)
- Abdominopelvic cavity can also be divided into 9 segments using 2

parasagittal and 2 transverse imaginary lines:
- Right and left hypochondriac regions - Below cartilage of ribs.
- Epigastric region - Middle superior region above stomach and between right and left
hypochondriac regions.
- Right and left lumbar regions - Middle segments at same level as lumbar vertebrae.
- Umbilical region - Between lumbar regions, over umbilicus.
- Right and left iliac or inguinal regions - Most inferior segments.
- Hypogastric region - Between iliac regions, below stomach.
3) Serous membranes: Thin sheets of tissue; form certain cavities found in ventral cavity;
surround heart, lungs, and many abdominal organs.
- Appear to be 2 membranes when sectioned; actually consists of a 1, continuous layer of tissue;
folds over itself to create a double-layered structure.
- Serous fluid: Thin layer of fluid within two layers of cavity.
- Properties:
• Watery, slippery lubricant
• Fills space between membrane layers
• Produced by cells of membrane
• Prevents friction caused by movement of organs
- Visceral layer: In contact with underlying organ.
- Parietal layer: Outermost layer attached to surrounding structures.
- Body has 3 serous body cavities formed by 3 main serous membranes:
1) Pleural membranes: Covers lungs / thorax.
2) Pericardial membranes: Covers heart.
3) Peritoneal membranes: Covers abdominopelvic organs/abdominal wall.
2.1 Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain Body’s Homeostasis:
• Homeostasis: Maintenance of internal environment.

- Imbalances = lead to disease or death if uncorrected.
- Body’s internal environment = Results of wide range of coordinated processes/variables.
(temperature, chemical composition of blood and other body fluids, and many others)
- Prevention: of imbalance: Most variables are controlled (regulated) variables; maintained
within a narrow range, close to a normal value.
- Core Principles:
1) Feedback Loops:
- Positive: Less common than -ve feedback loops - effector activity increases and reinforces.
- Initial stimulus; shuts off when conditions return to the normal range.
- Negative: Oppose initial change in a regulated variable - reduce output.
- When a change in status of regulated variable is detected, a series of events is triggered to
return variable to its normal value.
- Each variable has a set point or an established normal value.
- Normal value for a regulated variable’s set point is usually a range of values called normal range
- When regulated variable is outside its normal range its is called a stimulus.
- Stimulus is detected by specialised cellular structure called receptor (sensor).
- Stimulus is sent to control centre - cells of nervous system determine the variable is outside of
set point.
- Control centre then signals other cells/organs, called effectors - cause physiological responses
that return variable to normal homeostatic range.
- Negative feedback loop ends or is closed once variable has returned to normal.
Stimulus —> Receptor —> Hypothalamus —> Effector —> Response
- Sun (Heat) —> Skin —> Central nervous system —> Glands —> Sweating
2) Structure and Function:

- Form of a structure is always such that it best
suits its function.
- States simply that form follows function - applies
to each level of organisation even to chemical
level.
3) Gradients:
• Gradient: Present any time more of something
exists 1 area than another - 2 areas are connected.
- Gradients drive physiological processes (respiration, nutrient exchange, formation of urine).
- 3 common gradients found in human body:
1) Temperature gradient: Temperature difference between two connected regions.
2) Concentration gradient: Concentration difference between two connected regions.
3) Pressure gradient: Pressure difference between two connected regions.
4) Cell to Cell Communication: Required to coordinate body functions.

- Cells in body work in a coordinated fashion to ensure homeostasis of organism is maintained.
- Usually accomplished with either chemical messengers/electrical signals - 1 cell triggers a
response from another cell.
- Electrical signals usually transmitted between neighbouring cells - chemical messengers can
affect neighbouring cells/travel to distant cells to cause effect.
5) Body survival needs:
1. Food (nutrients): Carbohydrates is used major energy source and Fats as energy reserve.
2. Oxygen: Used chemical reactions to release energy and deprivation less than 5 mins causes
cell death.
3. Water: 60-80% body weight; necessary for chemical reactions - obtained from food & drink,
lost as sweat, urine and in respiration.
4. Temperature: Closely regulated at 37˚C (98.6˚F) optimum for metabolism. Increased —>
protein denaturation and decreases slow reactions.
5. Air pressure: Required for breathing to allow gas exchange in lungs. High altitude - less
pressure means less oxygen reaches lungs; can cause death
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 10 The Chemistry of Life
Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life
Definitions:
• Atom: Smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter - has properties of a chemical element.
• Element: Substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical means.
• Molecule: 2 atoms combine - can be same or different atoms e.g. H2SO4
• Compound: When different elements combine e.g. NaCl
• Ion: Charged atom or molecule (Number of electrons is not equal to number of protons)
• Atomic Mass: The mass of an atom. P+ + N0
• Protons (P+): A subatomic particle with positive electric charge. (found in central core of atom)
• Neutrons (N0): A subatomic particle with no electric charge. (found in atomic nucleus)
• Electrons (e-): A subatomic particle with negative electric charge. (found outside of atomic
nucleus)
• Electron Shells: Regions surrounding atomic nucleus - electrons exist each can hold certain
number of electrons.
• Trace elements: Elements that are found and required in living organism.
• Note: All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds.
1.0 Atoms and Atomic Structure:
- Atoms are electrically neutral - they have no charge.

- Number of protons and electrons are equal - cancel each other’s charge.
- Number of neutrons does not have equal number of protons.
Electron Shells: Orbit nucleus in layers.
1st Shell: (closest to nucleus) can hold 2 electrons

2nd Shell: Can hold 8 electrons
3rd Shell: (valency) can hold 18 electrons
• Some atoms have more than 3 shells.
Atomic Energy:
- Octet rule (rule of 8s): Elements interact with each other to produce
chemically stable arrangements of 2 (1st shell) / 8 e- (all other shells) in
valence shell.
- Valence shell: Outermost electron shell - Has the most potential energy and chemically
reactive e- can combine with others.
- Valency of an atom: Ability to combine other atoms and (=) no. of unpaired e- in outer shell.
Chemically Inert Elements: Stable/Unreactive (Ne and Xe) and valence shell is fully occupied/
contains 8 electrons e.g. He 2e- and Ne 2e- inner and 8e- outer.
Chemically Reactive Elements: Fill valency shell to 2 or 8 and empty the shell completely.
Chemical Interactions: Interactions involves e- in outer shell - forms bonds and uses energy and
breaking bonds releases energy.
Possibilities:
1) Transfer from 1 shell to another (Ionic)
2) Sharing (covalent)
1.1 Chemical bonds:
• Chemical Bonds: The attraction between atoms, ions/molecules - enables formation of

chemical compounds.
- Matter can be chemically combined when atoms are combined by chemical bonds.
- Not a physical structure but rather an energy relationship/attractive force between atoms.
Types:
1) Ionic bond
2) Covalent bond
3) Hydrogen bond
• Ionic bonding: When e- are transferred from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom - results in
formation of ions (cations and anions).
• Salt: The attraction between opposite charges bonds ions to one another forming a compound.
1) Cation: +ve charged ion - forms when metal loses 1 or more e- (Ca2+).
2) Anions: -ve charged ion - forms when nonmetal gains 1 or more electrons (NO3-).
• Covalent bonding: Strongest bond - forms when 2 or more nonmetals share e-.
- 2 atoms can share 1 (single bond), 2(double bond) / 3 (triple bond) e- pairs:
- All elements have protons that known as e- -vevity => attract e- property.
- An element’s e- -vevity increases from bottom left to upper right.
- The more e- -ve an element the more strongly it attracts e- , pulling them away from < e- -ve
elements\
• Polar covalent bonds: Polar molecules - nonmetals with different e- -vities interact resulting in
unequal sharing of -e
- Atom with higher e- -veviity becomes partially -ve (δ-) - pulls shared e- close to itself.
- Atom with lower e- -veviity becomes partially +ve (δ-) - pulls shared electrons are pulled toward
other atom.
- Polar molecules with partially +ve and -ve ends are known
as dipoles.
• Non-polar covalent bonds: Polar molecules - two nonmetals in molecule with identical e-vity
pull with (=) force where e- share equally.
- Non-polar molecules occur:
1) Atoms sharing electrons are same element.
2) Arrangement of atoms makes 1 atom unable to pull more strongly than another atom (CO2)
3) Bond is between C and H+
Comparison of Ionic and Covalent Bonding:
Ionic:
• Complete transfer of e- (e.g. HCl)
• Separates ions (charged particles form)
Polar Covalent Bonds:

• Unequal sharing of e- (e.g. H2SO4)
• Slight -ve charge at one end of molecule and Slight +ve charge at the other end
Non-polar Covalent Bonds:

• Equal sharing of e- (e.g. SO2)
• Charge balanced among atoms
• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between partially +ve end of 1 dipole and partially -ve end
of another dipole - responsible for a key
• property of water (surface tension)
1.2 Chemical Reactions in Cells (Biochemistry):
- Cell survival and function requires chemical reactions - known as chemical factories.
- Energy needed to maintain homeostasis and perform essential functions.
- Metabolism:
• Involve unpaired electrons in outer shell of atoms
• Occur when bonds are formed orbroken
• Produce/use energy
Definitions:
• Chemical notation: Series of symbols/abbreviations used to demonstrate occurrence in
reaction.
• Energy: Capacity/Ability to do work/put matter into motion.
• Reversible reactions: Reactions - either direction (2 arrows) - run opposite directions
(equilibrium)
• Irreversible reactions: Reactions proceed from left to right (1 arrow).
• Reactants: Left side of equation - undergoes reaction.
• Products: Right side of equation - results chemical reaction.
Energy Chemical Reactions:

1) Potential energy: Stored and can be released to do work at some later time
2) Kinetic energy: Potential energy that has been released or set in motion to perform work.
• All atoms have kinetic energy - they are in constant motion.
• The faster they move the greater that energy.
Forms of energy in human body:
1) Chemical: Found in bonds between atoms - drives nearly all chemical processes.
2) Electrical: Generated by movement of charged particles/ions.
3) Mechanical: Energy directly transferred from 1 object to another.
Chemical:
• Anabolic reactions: Use energy to form bonds. (Synthesis)
- Smaller particles bonded together to form larger molecules. e.g. Amino acids joins together to
form protein.
• Catabolic reactions: Use energy to break bonds. (Decomposition)
- Bonds broken in larger molecules - results in smaller molecules e.g. Glycogen into glucose
monomers.
• Anabolic reactions: Synthesis and decomposition reactions combined.
- Displacement reactions - Bonds are both made and broken. e.g. ATP transfers PO42- bond to
form ADP and form glucose phosphate.
Equilibrium Reactions: Reversible reactions - symbol represents ⇌.
Factors affecting ⇌:
• Temperature: Increase in temp allows to move towards right which increases kinetic energy
and collisions.
• Particle size: The smaller the particle size the faster the reaction allowing to produce more
energy.
• Concentration: Allows to move towards the direction which counteracts the increase and can
increase collision.
• Catalyst: Role: Lower the activation energy e.g. Enzymes (Zymase) synthesises reaction
(releasing nutrients from food.
Example: CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)

Temperature: Reaction is exothermic - reaction moves towards the products side.
Concentration: Allows reaction to move towards more moles of solution (counteracting increase).
1.3 Types of Compounds:
1) Inorganic compounds:
• Inorganic: Compounds that lack carbon. e.g. NaCl and H2SO4.
- Role in Human Anatomy/Physiology:
1) Breathing
2) Bone formation
3) Chemical breakdown,
4) Homeostasis
5) Minerals (nutrition) - important in cell function
(providing energy)
Acids and Bases:
• Acid: Substances in which acts as proton donors (Ionise to produce H3O+)
• e.g.
1) CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) —> CH3COO-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
2) HCl(aq) + H2O(l) —> H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• Base: Substances in which acts as proton acceptors (Ionise to produce OH-)

• e.g.
1) NaOH(aq) + H2O(l) —> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
2) NH3(aq) + H2O(l) —> NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Measurement:
pH: An Logarithmic value used to determine the Acidity and Basicity.

- Runs from 0-14, where 0-6 is acidic and 8-14 is basic.
- 7 is neutral e.g. H2O and NaCl
- Blood pH: 7.35 - 7.45
Role in Anatomy/Physiology: Abnormal fluctuations in pH: damage cells/tissues - breaks chemical

bonds, changes protein shapes.
• Salt: An ionic/inorganic compound - does not contain H3O+ or OH- ions.

• Neutralisation: An chemical reaction - involves acid and base reaction forming salt and water.
• Acid + Base —> Salt + Water
• e.g. HCl + NaOH —> NaCl + H2O
• Electrolyte: An soluble, inorganic compound - associates into cations/anions - conduct

electricity.
- Movement of ions generates voltage gradients across cell plasma membrane (Important in
body cells.)
1) Heart and Skeletal muscle.
2) Nervous Transmission.
- Ion concentrations in bodily fluids is carefully regulated.
- Importance of Homeostasis: Avoids diseases such as hypokalemia, hyperkalemia - regulated
by kidneys and muscles.
Importance of Water:
1) Performs Important functions:

- Protection: Reduces friction at joints - structure is cushion like in cavities (mucus/body fluids)
- Thermoregulation: Absorbs/releases (endothermic/exothermic) heat slowly in homeostasis.
- Chemical reactivity/solubility: Commonly during digestion.
2) Polarity: Contributes to solubility.
- Dissolves ionic or other polar organic substances easily - its a universal solvent in body.
- Many organic substances are not polar:
• Hydrophobic: Hydration spheres don’t form around non-polar organic molecules and cannot
dissolve in solution. (e.g. fats and oils)
• Hydrophillic: Polar organic molecules, are held in solution by their association with water
molecules. (e.g. proteins or sugars)
2) Organic Compounds:
• Organic: Substances that contain carbon (always), H, O and N.

- Made up of large macromolecules. (many atoms) - always have covalent bonds.
Functional groups:
Functional Group Importance Examples
Carboxylic acid Releases H3O+ - becomes CH3COOH

(-COOH) R-COO-
Amino group (-NH2) Releases H3O+ depending on Animo Acids
pH - form bonds with other
molecules
Hydroxyl group (-OH) May link molecules through C2H5OH, NaOH
dehydration synthesis H+
bonding between OH- groups
and H2O molecules affect
solubility
Phosphate (PO4 3-) May link other molecules to H3PO4
form larger structures - stores
energy
Carbohydrates:
Types:
1) Monosaccharides: 1 sugar (quick energy)
2) Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides joined by covalent bond - short storage broken into mono.
3) Polysaccharides: Sugars - provides long term energy storage.
- E.g.
- Glycogen: Stored for energy needs (found in liver, muscle and sperm) - broken into glucose.
- Starch: Storage molecule in plants/vegetables e.g. cornstarch.
- Cellulose: Found naturally in plants cell walls - most abundant organic molecule. (Cannot be
digested)
Lipids (Fats):
Types: Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids
1) Triglycerides:
- Neutral fats found in food and body.
- Most concentrated energy source - produces energy twice as carbohydrates.
- Functions: insulation/protection and long term energy storage.
1. Saturated (solid at room temp): Single covalent bond between C’s “bad” fats
- e.g. animal fats, butter, lard.
2. Unsaturated (oily at room temp): less than 1 double covalent bond between carbons -
changes metabolism of molecule, mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
- e.g. Omega 3 fish oil, olive oil
2) Phospholipids:
- Major structural component of cell membrane
structure.
Modified triglyceride:
- Polar - has a hydrophillic head and
hydrophobic tail
- Lipid bilayer with proteins and glycoproteins
embedded
3) Steroids:
- Monitors Cholesterol levels - important to avoid high blood cholesterol (HBC) levels.
Types:
• Vitamin D: Calcium homeostasis.
• Bile salts: Mixes fats and absorbs vitamins (A,D,E,K)
• Oestrogen and Testosterone: Used commonly in reproduction.
- Also found in cell membranes and foods e.g. Liver, meat, cheese and eggs.
HBC levels are associated with CVD - Ratio of Low-density lipoprotein (LDL): High-density
lipoprotein (HDL) = LDL:HDL
LDL: Carries cholesterol to cells. (‘bad’ cholesterol) - leads to high levels of clogging arteries.
HDL: Removes excess cholesterol out of cells, including arteries (good cholesterol)
Vitamins:
• Vitamins: Small organic molecules required to carry out important body functions - essential.
- Must be obtained from food (vegetables/fruits).
- Support normal growth and development - boosts immune system and help cells perform tasks
- Fat soluble vitamins can be stored - water soluble cannot.
Types:
1) Vitamin A: Improves eyesight. (Fat soluble)
2) Vitamin B1, B6 and B12: Commonly used to speed up enzyme reactions. (Fat soluble)
3) Vitamin C: Forms Collagen (Water soluble)
4) Vitamin D: Absorbs Calcium (Fat soluble)
5) Vitamin E: Used for antioxidants.
6) Vitamin K: Improves bone strength and blood clotting. (Fat soluble)
Proteins:
• Proteins: “Doing molecules” - made from amino acids and long chains of polypeptide
- Most common organic compounds in body - approx. made up of 20% of body weight.
- Polypeptide chains are formed by union if (-COOH) group to amino (NH3) of another to form
polypeptide bond.
- Types of proteins (Shape based): Fibrous and globular
Functions:
1) Support - Structural proteins e.g. keratin (Fibrous)
2) Motion - Contractile proteins e.g. myosin (Fibrous)
3) Enzymes - Speeds up chemical reactions
4) Transport - Cell membranes channels, transporters in blood e.g. haemoglobin (Globular)
5) Defense - Antibodies of immune system (Globular)
6) Hormone functioning - Cell signalling (Globular)
7) Energy reserve - Fuelling muscle/carbohydrate glycogen. (Globular)
8) Buffering - Proteins have negative charges - pick up H+ in strongly acidic conditions whereas
if blood is too alkaline H+ can be released. (Globular)
Fibrous Proteins (Strand like):

- Insoluble in water
• Collagen: Most abundant protein in body (Bones, ligaments and Cartilages)
• Keratin: Skins, nails, hair
• Actin/Myosin: Muscle contraction.
Globular Proteins (Functional proteins):

- Compact, folded, spherical molecules e.g. enzymes and antibodies.
- The doing molecules:
• Destroying antibodies.
• Transporting lipoproteins
• Maintaining homeostasis: albumin and blood p
- Shaped by H+ bonds - unstable (denature)
- Water soluble.
- Some have active sites e.g. Haemoglobin and enzymes.
Nucleic Acids:
- Largest molecules in the body.
- Types:
• ATP (Can be modified)
• DNA
• RNA
Nucleotides: “Building blocks of Nucleic acids”

- Nitrogenous base
- Deoxyribose sugar
- Phosphate group
Nitrogenous bases:
- Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil. (AGC)
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): “body’s energy currency”
- Most common high energy compound in body.
- Functions:
1) Muscle contractions
2) Enzyme reactions
3) Synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
4) Molecules - cannot be synthesised or transported without ATP.
- Formation and breakdown of ATP:
1) Metabolism of glucose covalent bonds (enzymes) releases energy - captured/stored in PO43-
2) When bonds broken (hydrolysis), energy is removed and enzymes transfer released to other
compounds for use.
3) Accumulating ADP replenishes ATP by oxidation of food fuels through cellular respiration.
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA):
- Structure:
- DNA is found in the cell nucleus (never leaves nucleus).
- Always Double Stranded.
- Contains codes for all body proteins
- Gene:
- Piece of DNA - controls synthesis of specific protein
(20K proteins in humans)
Ribosomal Nucleic Acid (RNA):
- Single strand containing ribose sugar (Uracil replaces Thymine in base pair sequences)
- RNA transmits genetic information from nucleus to cytoplasm.
- Guides Protein synthesis from amino acids
- Types:
• Messenger (mRNA)
• Transfer (tRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA - organelle - interacts with tRNA and mRNA.
1.4 Protein Synthesis:
- A Process of manufacturing proteins from DNA blueprint using RNA.

• Gene Expression: Production of protein from specific gene.
- TWO Processes involved:
1) Transcription: process where gene for specific protein is copied.
- Creates mRNA and exits through nuclear pore
2) Translation: Occurs in cytosol - mRNA binds with ribosome - initiates synthesis:
- A polypeptide - consists a specific sequence of amino acids.
DNA —> Transcription —> mRNA —> Translation —> Protein
DNA Control in protein synthesis, cell structure and function:
- Genes are usually tightly coiled (inactive)

• Gene activation: Process of uncoiling for protein production.
- 4 nucleotides (CGAT) have to code for the different amino acids that are found in proteins.
- This is done by using a sequence of 3 nucleotides (triplet) to code for 1 amino acid.
- All genes contain specific nucleotide triplets responsible for regulating own activity.
Protein Synthesis Process:

1)DNA unwinds
2)mRNA transcribes a strand of RNA complimentary to original DNA.
3)mRNA strand passes through nuclear pore into cytoplasm to the ribosome.
4)tRNA brings amino acids to ribosomes based on mRNA codon sequence
- tRNA have triplets called anticodons.
5) Complimentary binding between codon and anticodon ensures correct amino acid is inserted
into growing protein chain
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 4 The Cell
Chapter 3: The Cell
1.0 Introduction to the Cell:

• Cell: Basic, living, structural and functional unit of the body.
- Humans, animals and plants are multicellular. (eukaryotic)
- Bacteria/viruses are unicellular. (prokaryotic - lacks membrane bound nucleus and organelles)
- Every vital life functions are carried out within a cell. (Metabolism, reproduction, movement,
responsiveness and growth)
- Pre-existing cells derived:
1) Mitosis and Meiosis.
2) Contain hereditary genetic material that regulate.
3) Function in form of DNA and RNA.
1.1 Basic Processes of an cell:

1) Cell metabolism: Sum of chemical reactions - cell carries out to maintain life:
• Anabolic reactions: builds reactions - small molecules bonded to form macromolecules.
• Catabolic reactions: Breakdown macromolecules back into small molecules.
• Oxidation/Reduction: Break energy in chemical bonds of nutrients inform of energy cell can
use from ATP.
2) Transport: Substances cell has produced/ingested to variety of destinations is a vital process.
3) Communication: Between cell and itself, its surrounding environment: -
- Other cells are carried out by methods including chemical and electrical signals
4) Cell Reproduction: (cell division) Process for growth/development and replacing old cells.
1.2 Cell Structure (Animals):

- 3 basic components:
4) Plasma (cell) membrane: Physical barrier (semipermeable membrane) involves osmosis.
5) Nucleus: Contains cellular genetic material.
6) Cytoplasm: Liquid layer between the membrane and nucleus - contains:
- Cytosol: Intracellular fluid (water/ions/proteins/lipids/carbohydrates)
- Organelles: Sub-cellular structures with specific functions e.g energy production.
Types of cells (Common):
• Skin/Fat cells
• Blood cells
• Nerve cells
• Sperm cells
• Bone/Skeletal muscle/
Smooth muscle cells
• Fibroblasts
Structure Function
Cell membrane Used as protection - contain transport/signalling systems to regulate cell traffic.
Nucleus Form of chromatin - surrounded by porous nuclear membrane (Has nucleolus -

makes ribosomes)
Mitochondrion (1x) Powerhouse of cell - produces energy using ATP during cellular respiration
Ribosome Synthesises Proteins - used in the process of protein synthesis.
Endoplasmic Transport system connecting cell membrane to nucleus and organelles:

reticulum 1) Smooth: lipid synthesis and metabolism of toxic substances (drugs/alcohol)
1) Smooth 2) Rough: Covered in ribosomes - protein synthesis for delivery to Golgi body.
2) Rough
Golgi apparatus Series of stacked flattened membranes - synthesise carbohydrates (Package

and export proteins via vesicular exocytosis)
Lysosome Small vesicles containing digestive enzymes - kill pathogens/damaged
organelles/degrade proteins/toxins
1.3 Cell division: - Cell theory states all cells come from pre-existing ones.
1) All go through cell cycle: Duration varies with cell type e.g. gut, skin, blood/muscle, nerve.
2) Main stages:
• Interphase: Growth, Normal activities, DNA replication
• Cell reproduction: Mitosis, Cytokinesis
1.4 Cell Reproduction (Mitosis and Meiosis): (Chromosomes = X, chromatid = x)
1) Mitosis (Occurs all Cells except gametes): DNA divided in daughter cells each with 23 pairs
of chromosomes (diploid number) - Main function is for tissue repair/replacement.
- Phases:
• Prophase: Chromatin condenses to X and nuclear envelope disappears so X can move.
• Metaphase: X align in pairs along midline
• Anaphase: X separates at centromere and pulled to opposite ends of cell - cytokinesis starts
• Telophase: Cytoknesis continues until 2 identical daughter cells are produced.
- During cell division x condenses into X.

- Somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs.
- Mitosis results in 2 identical daughter cells.
2) Meiosis (ova and sperm): Each cell contains 23 X (reduced by 1/2)
- Rounds of division:
• Round 1: Interphase (DNA replication) Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I
• —> Cells divide to 2 daughter cells with 23 X (haploid)
• Round 2: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II
• Each daughter cell gives rise to 2 more daughter cell - each has haploid 23, of X.
1.5 Cell Communication:
- Permeability is regulated by cell membrane proteins.

- Passive transport: Freely permeable membranes - allow any substance to pass without
difficulty
- Active transport: Selectively permeable membranes (plasma membranes), permit passage of
some materials and prevent passage of others.
Diffusion:
• Diffusion: The movement of molecules from a region of higher conc. to lower conc. region.
- Random mixing of particles (solute) in a solution (solvent) as a result of the particle’s kinetic
energy (movement).
- Particles spread out and move from high to low conc. (until ⇌ reached) no energy required.
Factors:
Physiology Processes involved
1) Concentration gradient: Greater —> Faster.
(Gradients):
2) Temperature: Higher —> Faster.
3) Particle Size: Smaller —> Faster. • Breathing
4) Diffusion distance: Shorter —> Faster • Nutrition
5) Lipid solubility: More lipid soluble particles there are, • Excretion
faster they diffuse.
• Neuronal Communication
6) Membrane permeability: Greater —> Faster.
Passive transport mechanisms across plasma membrane:

1) Simple diffusion across lipid bilayer along concentration gradient.
2) Diffusion through channels/receptors.
3) Facilitated diffusion:
- Molecules repelled by lipid bilayer.
- Use protein transporters that change shape to pass solute.
- Mechanism - “double sliding doors”
Osmosis:
• Osmosis: The spontaneous passage/diffusion of water/other solvents
through semipermeable membrane.
- Membrane prevents diffusion of solute creating a water gradient.
- Important because large changes in volume of water in cells disrupts
normal function - Alters tonicity
Tonicity of Extracellular Fluid:
- Isotonic: Cells retain normal size and shape.

- Hypertonic: Cells lose water by osmosis and shrink.
- Hypotonic: Cell take in water and swell (may burst)
Active Transport of Solutes:
- Similar to facilitated diffusion (uses protein carriers) but works against conc. gradient.
- Energy driven process using (solute) pump to move specific substances across cell membrane
- Energy for this transport is derived from ATP.
- Most common form of active transport is Sodium and Potassium pump.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis (active transport by vesicles):
• Endocytosis: A cellular process - substances are brought into the cell.

• Exocytosis: A form of active transport and bulk transport - a cell transports molecules out of
cell by expelling them through energy-dependent process.
- In endocytosis larger particles are “eaten” by cell without passing through cell membrane.
- Some white blood cells use endocytosis for ingestion and destruction of microbes
(phagocytosis).
- Exocytosis is reverse process - vesicles made in Golgi body fuse with cell membrane to expel
contents (e.g. hormones)
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 7 Histology
Chapter 4: Histology
Definitions:
• Histology: Study of normal structures of tissues.
• Extracellular Matrix: Substances composed in a thick gel - surrounds cells of a tissue.
• Gland: Structure of epithelial origin - synthesises/secretes protein product from designated
secretory cells.
1.0 Components of Histology:
1) Consist of discrete population of cells that are related in structure and function.
2) Have a surrounding material called Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Types of Tissues:
1) Epithelial: Covers body surface/body cavities - some specialised to become secretory glands
2) Connective: Includes bone, cartilage, blood and fatty tissue, binds/supports body structures
3) Muscle: Categorised by shape, number of nuclei and mechanism of stimulation.
• Voluntary: Striated and Involuntary: Cardiac and smooth.
• Contraction causes movement, produces heat, maintains balance
4) Nervous: Neurons: Signal conduction, Communication, Glia: Support
Extracellular Matrix Types:

1) Ground Substance: Makes up most of ECM - consists of ECF (H2O, nutrients, ions)
2) Protein Fibres: Embedded within ground substance - molecules composed of fibrous subunits
- Functions:
• Provides tissue with strength - resists stretching and compressive forces.
• Direct cells to their proper positions within a tissue and holds those cells in place.
• Regulates development mitotic activity, and survival of cells in a tissue
Epithelial Tissues:
1) Cell shape:
• Squamous cells: look flattened
• Cuboidal cells: Short (and sometimes cubelike)
• Columnar cells: Tall and elongated
2) Number of layers: Related to function

• Simple epithelia: Consist of a single cell layer.
• Stratified epithelia: Consist of more than 1 cell layer.
• Pseudostratified epithelia: Consist of a single cell layer that appears as more than 1 layer.
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Epithelial Glands:
- Classified either by their shape or by how they release products.
- Mechanisms:
1) Endocrine:
- Secrete hormones directly into blood stream and insulin
- Has no ducts
- Has widespread effects
2) Exocrine:
- Secrete fluids into ducts that open onto epithelial tissue e.g. sweat, saliva, mucus.
- Duct system is simple or compound
- Has local effects
Connective Tissues:
- Most common and widely distributed tissue in body (Never exposed to external environment)
- Most types have good blood supply (except tendons and cartilage)
- Includes:
• Bone
• Cartilage
• Adipose (fat)
• blood (fluid connective tissue)
- Functions:
1) To bind
2) Support and protect other body tissues
3) Fills space
4) Stores fat
5) Fight infection
6) Produce blood cells
Basic Elements: Cells - Embedded in ECM and ECM - Contains fibres and ground substance
Types:
1) Proper (General connective tissue):
- Widely distributed in body - connect tissues and organs to one another
- Components of internal architecture of some organs
2) Specialised: Have more specific functions
Proper Connective tissue:

- Resident cells permanently inhabit tissue in which they are found.
- Migrant cells migrate into different areas of body depending on situation.
- Types of proper cells:
1) Fibroblasts: Resident cell, makes protein fibres and ground substance.
2) Adipocytes: Fat cells found in many connective tissues around the body.
3) Mast cells: Resident cell, immune cell which releases inflammatory mediators.
4) Phagocytes: Can be resident/migrant - immune cell ingests foreign substances/microbes,
and dead cells by phagocytosis.
5) Other immune system cells: Can migrate in and out of connective tissues depending on
body’s needs.
Components:
1) Loose Connective (arelor tissue, adipose, reticular) (Most common):

- Mostly ground substance, with all 3 types of protein fibers, fibroblasts, and adipocytes,
suspended in ground substance.
- Binds underlying organs to skin and each other
- Have more cells and less fibres - provide padding and support network for other tissues
2) Dense Connective (fibrous):
- Provides structural support - it has many collagen fibres, tightly packed in regular pattern.
- In tendons (muscle to bone) and ligaments (bone to bone) and scar tissue.
- Mostly protein fibres are grouped into 3 classes:
• Dense irregular connective tissue: Predominantly disorganised collagen bundles.
• Dense regular connective tissue: Predominantly organised into parallel collagen bundles
• Dense regular elastic connective tissue (elastic): Mostly parallel oriented elastic fibres with
random oriented collagen fibres.
Other Components:
- Reticular tissue (Loose):
- Composed mostly of reticular fibers produced by fibroblasts (reticular cells),
- From fine networks that can support small structures like blood and lymphatic vessels.
- Adipose tissue (fat tissue) (Loose):
- Consists fat storing adipocytes/surrounding fibroblasts and ECM;
- Adipocytes can increase in size to point - fibroblasts and ECM are scarcely visible.
Specialised Connective tissue:
- Has more specific functions and include the following three types of tissue:
1) Cartilage (Supportive)
2) Bone tissue (Supportive)
3) Blood/lymph (Fluid supportive)
Cartilage:
- Joints between bones, in ear, nose, and segments of respiratory tract.
- Made up chondrocytes (cartilage cells)
- Function: Support, attachment and cushions bones.
- Types (Differs in composition of ECM):
1) Hyaline: Covers ends of moveable joints, nose and respiratory passages (ground substance/
collagen fibres).
2) Fibrous:
- Found in knee joint - resists compression and limits bone to bone contact.
- Provides tough shock absorbers.
- ECM is mostly collagen fibres & little ground substance.
- e.g. pubic symphysis and intervertebral discs.
3) Elastic Cartilage:
- Tolerate distortion and return to original shape - ECM is mainly elastic fibres. e.g ear, epiglottis.
Bone Tissue (Hard Connective):
- Supports body - protects organs/provides attachments for muscles that - movement; stores
Ca2+, and houses bone marrow (produces blood cells/stores fat).
- Consists of living cells (osteocytes/osteoblasts/osteoclasts) and a mineralised matrix.
- Functions:
1. Support and protect other tissues and organs
2. Provide attachment sites for muscles
3. Stores calcium and fat
4. Produces red blood cells
Blood (fluid produced in Cardiovascular system):

- Connective tissue with a liquid ECM called plasma consists of 80% water, solutes, proteins.
- Contains:
1. Plasma proteins:
- Are not like fibers found in other connective tissues.
- Smaller with a variety of functions including of substances and blood clotting transport.
2. Erythrocytes (RBCs): Binds with O2 and transports throughout the body.
3. Leukocytes (WBCs): Functions to destroy pathogens and microbes in immune system.
4. Platelets (cell fragments): Plays a major role in blood clotting.
Lymph: Found in lymphatic system

Contains:
- Fluid from blood plasma.
- Contains reticular fibres, with various types of leukocytes cell debris.
1.1 Membranes:
• Membrane: Flat sheets of pliable tissue covers or line a part of body, composed of 1+ tissues
- Functions: Anchor organs in place, Provides Physical barriers, Immunity, and secretion.
- Types:
1. True: Don’t open to outside of body - are serous and synovial.
2. Membrane-like structures: Are Open to outside of body - mucous and cutaneous.
True Membranes:
1) Serous membranes: Line pericardial, peritoneal, and pleural body cavities; structural/
functional features.
- Consists of a mesothelium (Simple squamous epithelium layer) associated basement
membrane, and layer of connective tissue.
- Fold over themselves giving appearance of 2 layers:
• Outer parietal layer lines body wall
• Inner visceral layer covers organ within body cavity.
- Mesothelial cells produce a thin, watery serous fluid:
• Fills space between parietal and visceral layers.
• Reduces friction created when organs (heart/lungs) move within respective membranes
2) Synovial membranes: Line cavities surrounding freely moveable joints like knee/shoulder -
made up of 2 connective tissue layers without a layer of epithelial cells.
- Outer layer: Usually composed of mixture of loose and dense irregular connective tissue.
- Inner layer: Synoviocytes (modified fibroblasts) secrete synovial fluid, watery, fluid - functions
to lubricate joint.
Membrane-like structures:
1) Mucous membrane:
- Lines all body passages as components of walls of hollow organs - open to outside body;
- Includes:
1. Respiratory passages
2. Mouth
3. Nasal cavity
4. Digestive tract
5. Male and Female reproductive tracts
- Consists layer of epithelium and its basement membrane and a thin layer of smooth muscle
- (layer of connective tissue called lamina propria)
- Contain glands with goblet cells - produce and secretes mucus and serves several functions.
2) Cutaneous membrane:
- Outer layer of keratinised stratified squamous epithelium called epidermis protects structures
deep to it
- Dermis:
- Layer of loose connective tissue found beneath epidermis + deeper layer of connective tissue
dense irregular.
- Home to many blood vessels - provide a means for O2 and nutrients to diffuse into avascular
epidermis.
1.2 Muscle Tissues:
- Mainly specialised for contraction.

- 3 tissue types have ability to turn chem energy of ATP -> mechanical energy of movement:
• Smooth muscles
• Skeletal muscle
• Cardiac muscle
- Walking/breathing/heart beating and propulsion of substances through hollow organs result

contractions of different muscle tissues.
- Main component of muscle tissue is muscle cell/myocyte - excitable (respond to electric/chem
stimulation).
1.2 Nervous Tissues:
- makes up majority of brain, spinal cord, and nerves;

- Cell Types (surrounds ECM):
• Neurones: Capable of sending and receiving messages.
• Neurological cells: Perform various functions that support neurone activities.
- ECM is unique - made of ground substance with unique proteoglycans not found in other
tissues - contains few protein fibres.
Neurones:
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 5 The Integumentary System
Chapter 5: The Integumentary System
- The Human Skin is the largest and most accessible organ (hair, nails and glands).
- Skin is also an complex organ with many functions important for homeostasis.
- Made up of 15% of body weight.
- First contacts outside the body involves:
1) UV light
2) Chemicals
3) Microbes (pathogens) e.g. Bacteria.
4) First of defence (contains enzymes that destroys pathogens)
5) Physical barrier (protects organs from external environment.
1.0 Skin Structure:
Cutaneous membrane:
- Components:
1) Epidermis:
- Superficial layer that consists of keratinised stratified squamous epithelium
- Rests on a basement membrane
2) Dermis:
- Deep to epidermis and basement membrane.
- Consists of loose connective tissue and dense irregular connective tissue.
- Hypodermis:
- Deep to dermis.
- Not part of the skin
- Anchors skin to body (mostly muscle)
- Mostly subcutaneous fat (shock absorber and
insulation)
Accessory Structures:
- Sweat glands
- Sebaceous glands
- Hair and nails
- Skin also contains sensory receptors and Arrector pili
muscles: Small bands of smooth muscle with hair.
Epidermis:
How is it avascular?:
- Rely on diffusion of O2/nutrients from blood vessels in dermis - limits epidermal thickness.
- 50% of cells in epidermis are far from adequate blood supply to sustain life - layers are made of
dead cells.
Layers:
1) Stratum basale (innermost):

- Single layer of stem cells resting on basement membrane.
- Closest cells to blood supply in dermis.
- Involves vitamin D synthesis / replacement of dead keratinocytes - lost from superficial layers.
2) Stratum spinosum:
- Thickest layer - sits on top of stratum basale.
3) Stratum granulosum:
- 3 - 5 layers of cells with prominent cytoplasmic granules - filled with keratin bundles/lipid based
substance.
- Hydrophobic nature of lipids are waterproof - critical for maintaining internal fluid/electrolyte
homeostasis.
4) Stratum Iucidum:
- Narrow layer of clear, dead keratinocytes - found only in thick skin.
5) Stratum corneum (outermost):
- Consists of several layers of dead flattened keratinocytes with thickened plasma membranes.
- Filled mostly with keratin bundles and little else.
- Sloughed off/exfoliated mechanically as desmosomes holding neighbouring cells together are
lost.
Cell Types:
1) Keratinocytes:
- Produce keratin - tough fibrous protein makes epidermis more resistant to mechanical trauma.
- Linked to each other by desmosomes - makes epidermis stronger.
2) Melanocytes:
- Located in stratum basale - produce melanin (protein skin pigment ranging from orange-brown
3) Dendritic cells:
- Located in stratum spinosum - phagocytes protect skin and tissues from pathogens.
4) Merkel cells (sensory receptors):
- Oval shaped scattered throughout stratum basale - associated with small neurons in dermis.
1. Detect light touch and discriminate shapes and textures
2. Found in large numbers in regions that are specialised for touch (fingertips, lips, base hairs)
Dermis:
- Connective tissue layer made from collagen and elastic tissue/

fibroblasts/macrophages/fat cells.
Layers:
1) Papillary layer (loose connective tissue):
- Contains dermal papillae with blood vessels
- Interweave with epidermal ridges fingerprints
2) Reticular layer (dense irregular connective tissue):
- Contains accessory organs (hairs, glands, receptors)
- Provides strength and elasticity to skin.
Epidermal Appendages 1: Hair and Pilli
1) Pilli:
- Lies in hair follicle - Epithelial lined sheath
- Long shafts of dead keratin:
• Shaft visible above skin - root below
• Base contains a papilla (connective tissue and blood vessels)
• Above it is hair matrix (Mitotically active (cell division and growth)
- Hair colour determined by melanocytes in matrix.
2) Hair:
• Piloerection: Contraction of arrector pili muscles.
- Hair is a sensory organ as has nerve supply to sheath
Types:
1. Vellus: body hair.
2. Terminal: head hair and eyebrows
- At puberty: pubic and armpit hairs appear due to hormone regulation.
- Growth varies with sex, age and location - x̅ growth = 2.5mm wk-1.
Appendages 2: Glands
Types:
1) Sebaceous glands (Exocrine):
- Duct empties into hair follicle - found on all skin except palms and soles.
- Contains secrete sebum (oil):
1. Keeps skin waterproofed, pliable and healthy.
2. Contains anti-fungal, antimicrobial components.
3. Arrector pili contractions force sebum to surface.
- Blockage can lead to whiteheads and blackheads (acne) - leads to infection to glands.
- Ear dermis contains ceruminous glands produce ear wax (traps dust/airborne pathogens)
2) Sweat glands (sudoriferous):

1. Eccrine:
- Gland base in dermis, tube to epidermal surface.
- Empties to skin surface.
- Everywhere except lips and head of penis
- Involves Thermoregulation.
2. Apocrine:
- Mainly in armpit, groin and nipple areas.
- Empty into hair follicles.
- Begin to function at puberty - activates by stress and sexual foreplay.
- B.O. occurs when skin bacteria use secretions.
- Doesn’t involve thermoregulation.
Appendages 3: Nails
- Consists of a body and root.

- Nail matrix at base of root produces nail - composed of hardened keratin.
- Body: Is pink due to underlying blood vessels - free edge is white (lunule)
• Cuticle: Skin extending onto nail - fingernails grow faster than toenails
• Changes in nail colour diagnostically relevant e.g. fungus, malfunction, thyroid disorders.
1.1 Functions of the Integumentary System:
1) Mechanical Protection (from mechanical trauma/pathogens/environment):

- Stratified squamous and keratinised epithelium provides durable/flexible surface - protects
body from mechanical trauma (stretching/pressure/abrasions)
- Provides continuous barrier to invade pathogens that can cause disease.
- Contains B/T cells of immune system that destroys pathogen before they invade deeper tissues
Glands:
- Secrete variety of antimicrobial substances - sebaceous gland secretions give skin a slightly
acidic pH (acid mantle: inhibits growth of pathogens.
- Provides protection from number of enviro hazards (absorption of UV light) before damages
deep tissues.
- Skin secretes hydrophobic lipid-based chemicals - repel ionic/polar covalent (salt/water) -
critical for maintaining water/electrolyte homeostasis in range of weather conditions.
- Dermis contains macrophages and immune cells to kill pathogens.
2) Sensation:
• Sensation: Process - enables nervous system to perceive changes in body’s internal/external
surroundings - critical to homeostasis.
- Skin has numerous sensory receptors that detect changes in internal/external environment.
- Receptors allow to detect harmful stimuli (heat, cold, and pain) - could lead to tissue damage.
3) Thermoregulation:
• Thermoregulation: Process - relies on -ve feedback loops for maintenance of stable internal
temperature.
- Internal body temperature is determined mostly by muscle activity.
- Many chemical are reactions involved in metabolism.
- Contains thermo-nociceptors in epidermis - involves:
• Vasodilation/Vasoconstriction
• Sweating
• Shivering
• Fat deposits
4) Excretion:
- Waste products/toxins are eliminated from body - mostly occurs at kidney/bladder.
- Skin and its accessory structures make a small but significant contribution
- Production of sweat - eliminates urea/electrolytes/lactic acid/water - produces dehydration.
5) Vitamin D synthesis:
- Cells found deep in epidermis convert vitamin D from inactive form (precursor) to active form.
- Found in fish oils shellfish/fish as a dietary supplement.
• Precursor: Modified cholesterol molecule - converts to cholecalciferol when epidermis is
exposed to UV radiation.
• Cholecalciferol: A type of vitamin D which is made by the skin when exposed to sunlight.
- Cholecalciferol is released into blood - modified 1st by liver then kidneys to form calcitriol.
- Vitamin D is required for Ca2+ absorption from small intestine - Ca2+ is critical for:
• nerve function
• muscle contraction
• building/maintaining
• bone tissue
1.2 Tissue injury and repair:

- Injury stimulates body’s inflammatory and immune responses.
• Inflammation: A physical condition - part of the body becomes reddened, swollen, hot.
• Immune response: Body's response caused by immune system being activated by antigens.
Signs of Inflammation:
1) Redness
2) Heat
3) Swelling
4) Pain
5) Loss of function (rarely)
- Mnemonic: Inflammation is a “ red hot swollen pain ”.
Tissue Repair:
• Fibrosis: Process - fibroblast fill in gaps left from injury
- Some tissues are not able to regenerate fully.
- Fibroblasts divide by mitosis - produce collagen that fills in gap/tissue loses some level of
function.
- End result of fibrosis is development of scar tissue composed of dense-irregular connective
tissue.
- Smooth muscle tissue usually regenerates; cardiac/skeletal muscle tissues - heal by fibrosis
- Nervous tissue generally undergoes fibrosis.
Phagocytosis (Skin Repair):

1) Underneath the scab granulation tissue forms and replaces the clot
2) Phagocytes to dissolve deeper portions of clot and fibroblasts results collagen fibre scar.
3) Now epithelium regenerates underneath scab and across the surface of the granulation tissue
4) Few weeks later scar repair is complete - scab is shed and fibroblast proliferation fills in
depression caused by initial injury.
5) Final result is regeneration of surface skin covering underlying scar tissue.
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 6 Bones and Bone Tissue
Chapter 6: Bones and Bone Tissue:
1.0 Bones Introduction:
Bone Classifications (Groups):

1) Long bones - Used to transmit force (humerus)
2) Short Bones - Used for support, provide stability and has limited movement (Phalanges)
3) Flat Bones - Used for protection around the cranial area (Frontal Bone)
4) Irregular Bones - Used for protection of nervous tissue (Vertebra)
5) Sesamoid bone - Used to protect tendons/ligaments (Patella)
Structure:
1) Compact: Outer surface of bones is solid and resists compression and twisting.
2) Spongy bone (honeycombed by trabeculae;): Lightweight
- Provides strength to forces in all direction - spaces contain bone marrow.
Anatomy of Bone:
- Long bones are most common shape and as a model to demonstrates general structure.
1) Epiphyses (Ends): Coved by hyaline cartilage.
2) Diaphysis (Shaft): Bears weight - bone marrow has
nutrient supply.
3) Epiphyseal line: Used as a growth plate.
4) Periosteum: Connective tissue - rich in blood and nerve
fibres.
5) Endosteum: Thin membrane lining the cavity.
Short, flat, irregular and sesamoid bones:

- Covered by periosteum , with perforating fibres, blood vessels and nerves, (long bones).
- Structure: 2 outer layers of thin compact bone/middle layer of spongy bone is diploë and it’s
bone marrow.
- Some flat and irregular skull bones have hollow spaces (Sinuses - Reduces bone weight)
- Don’t have diaphyses, epiphyses, medullary cavities, epiphyseal lines/epiphyseal plates.
1.1 Bone Tissues Introduction:
• Osseous (Bone) Tissue: Primary tissue found in bone - composed of ECM with small
population of cells throughout.
Connective tissues in bones (ECM):

1) Inorganic matrix: Consists of minerals - makes up about 65% of bones total weight.
- 55% Organic crystallised Ca2+ mineral salts (Hardness)
2) Organic Matrix: Makes up remaining 35% - consists of collagen fibres and usual ECM
components.
- 15% water, 30% collagen and other proteins - provide tensile strength and flexibility.
Bone Histology: Changing ECM composition alters bone properties.
Bone Cells:
- 3 types are responsible for bone’s dynamic nature:
1) Osteoblasts: Bone-building cell - secretes matrix - occurs mainly in presidium and endosteum
2) Osteocytes: Mature bone cells and are in compact and spongy bone.
3) Osteoclasts: Resorb/remodel bones cause to release Ca2+ using enzymes and H+ ions and
mainly functions in endosteum.
1) Compact Bone Histology:
- Osteocytes sit in tiny chambers called lacunae and connect to each
other by canaliculi.
- Form rings called lamellae around a central blood vessel (Haversian)
canal.
- Haversian canals only found in compact bone and are linked by
Volkman’s canals.
- An Osteon is a combination of lamellae and Canal.
2) Spongy Bone histology:

- Much less densely packed
- Network of struts reinforce strength of compact bone by resisting forces from variety of
directions
- Provides a protective structure for bone marrow tissue
- Struts/ribs of bone called trabeculae - covered with endosteum and not arranged into osteons.
• Trabeculae: Concentric lamellae between - lacunae are found containing osteocytes -
communicate with each other through canaliculi.
- No central/perforating canals supplies blood to trabeculae - obtain blood supply from vessels in
bone marrow
1.2 Osteogenesis, Epiphyseal and Remodelling:
1) Osteogenesis: Bone formation.

2) Epiphyseal: Bone Growth.
3) Remodelling: Repair of bone tissue.
Osteogenesis:
Occur in 4 situations:
1) During embryological and foetal development
2) When bones grow before adulthood
3) When bones remodel
4) When fractures heal
- All bones start as hyaline cartilage - areas gradually turn to bone by osteogenesis.
TYPES:
1) Intramembranous: Flat bones (skull) - connective tissue is replaced by bone.
2) Endochondral: Hyaline cartilage converts to bone (chondrocytes become osteoblasts) and all
other bones (except clavicle)
Figure 1.0 Intramembranous
Figure 1.1 Endochondral

Epiphyseal (growth plate):
- A cartilage that continues to divide pushing epiphysis away from diaphysis, results longitudinal
growth.
- New cartilage then ossifies creating trabecula.
- At 25yrs growth plate stops and becomes epiphyseal
line.
Appositional growth (Increased width of bone):

- Osteoblasts add bone to periosteum and osteoclast
dissolve inner wall (endosteum) of shaft.
Bone Remodelling:
- Essential for bones to retain normal size/strength as
body grows - Involves resorption by osteoclasts/
deposition by osteoblasts.
- Triggered by exercise, injury, dietary changes, age, sedentary lifestyle.
• Old age bones become weaker as subject to less osteocyte activity greater osteoblast activity.
- New bone grows thicker compared to old bone - when stressed is stronger and more resistant
to fractures.
- Gravity/muscle pull effects on skeleton determine - osteoblasts deposit new bone so skeleton
remains as strong.
Comparison:
Factors Affecting Bone Growth/Remodelling
1) Hormones:
- Parathyroid: Determines if bone is resorbed under
homeostatic control.
- Thyroid: Stimulates osteoblasts.
- Growth hormone:
• Testosterone: Increased positional growth.
• Estrogen: longitudinal growth/inhibits osteoclasts.
• Growth spurts (Increases mitosis and closure
epiphyseal plate).
2)Vitamins:
- A: Stimulates osteoblasts.
- C: Synthesises collagen.
- D: Builds bone by absorbing Ca from food
- K and B12: Other Bone Proteins
3)Minerals: Ca, Mg, P,F, Mn for bone remodelling

1.3 Bone Lumps, Bumps, Cavities and Depressions
- Surface markings are characteristic of the bone - also have sites for articulations.
- Elevations provide attachments for muscle, tendons and ligaments:
• Names begin with T e.g. tuberosity, tubercle
- Depressions/grooves are for passage of nerves and blood vessels:

• Names often begin with F e.g. fissure, foramen, fossa
Bone Markings:
1) Articulating Surfaces:
1. Head: Expanded proximal part of bone that forms part of a joint.
2. Condyle: Smooth, round articular process - covered by
hyaline cartilage
3. Facet: Small, flat articular surface e.g. ribs, vertebra
2) Surface Lumps and Bumps:

1. Epicondyle: Projection above condyle - muscle, tendon/ligament attachment is not covered
in hyaline cartilage
2. Protuberance: Bony outgrowth e.g. skull
3. Crest: Prominent ridge e.g. iliac
4. Spine: Sharp, slender/narrow process
5. Tubercle: Small round process
6. Tuberosity: Rough surface
Bone Depressions (Holes and dips):
1) Foramen: Small hole for passage of nerves/vessels

2) Sinus: Air filled space in bone.
3) Meatus: Opening into canal.
4) Groove: Shallow furrow.
5) Fossa: Shallow depression.
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 6 The Skeletal System
Chapter 7: Skeletal System
- Bones, joints, and supporting tissues.

Bones are the main organs of this system:
- Composed of more than osseous tissue.
- Composed of both dense regular and irregular collagenous connective tissue and bone marrow
- Skeletal system is made up of 20% of body mass and is mostly bone - since:
• Cartilage found in specific areas, ribs,nose, some joints
• Ligaments connect bones and reinforce joints
• Joints are responsible for mobility
Functions:
1) Protection: Important organs (brain)
2) Mineral storage for acid-base homeostasis: Stores Ca2+/PO43- - necessary for acid/base
and electrolyte balance
3) Blood cell formation: Red bone marrow - site of blood cell formation.
4) Fat storage: Allows to store Triglycerides.
5) Movement: Muscles produces/assists movement within their attachment to bones.
6) Support: Supports weight of the body.
1.0 The Skeleton:

• Axial: Head/neck/thoracic cage/vertebral column - 80 bones
• Appendicular: Limbs and Girdles - 126 bones
Cranium
Mandible
Clavicle
Scapula
Sternum
Humerus
Vertebrae
Ulna Pelvis
Coccyx
Radius Carpals/Metacarpals/
Phalanges
Femur
Fibula
Tarsals/Metatarsals/
Phalanges
Tibia
1.1 The Axial Region:
Frontal Bone Frontal Bone Occipital Bone
Maxilla Maxilla Parietal Bone
Zygomatic Bone Zygomatic Bone Mandible
Mandible Mandible Temporal Bone
Parietal Bone
Temporal Bone
Occipital Bone
Functions/Features (Skull):
Functions (Protection): Attachments (Inside/outside of skull):

- Brain (cranial bones) - Meninges - Stabilisation of blood, nerve vessels
- Respiratory/digestive entrances - Muscles of facial expression
- Supports sense organs
Features:
- Sinuses
Cranial Functions: - Foraminae
- Fontanelles
- Sutures
1) Brain Protection: - Meninges
- Parietal bone: Does not contribute to Frontal cranial base - Orbits
- Temporal bone: Squamous (thin), Petrous (thick - CNVIII apparatus)
2) Brain Protection (Vault Bones):
- Ethmoid (fragile): Medial wall of orbit - contains cribiform plate (CN1) - meninges attachment
- Sphenoid: Articulates with other vault bones which holds together.
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
3) Facial Bones:
• Zygomatic: Cheek - Palpable
• Maxilla: Fragile (sinus) - Articulates with all facial bones except mandible
• Mandible: Strongest/largest facial bone
• Orbit: Formed of 7 bones (zygomatic/maxilla/ethmoid/frontal/lacrimal, sphenoid) - Nasal is the
thinnest and smallest bone. (Bridge of nose)
• Palatine: The part of the hard palate.
Skull connections (Sutures/Bony Landmarks/Foraminae and Fossae):
Sutures:
Bony Landmarks:
Foraminae and Fossae:

Vertebral Column:
26 bones
Curvatives:
1) Primary (Concave):
- Develop before birth.
- Accommodates organs in cavities.
2) Secondary (Convex):
- Develops after birth.
- Maintains balance.
- Head on neck.
Vertebrae parts:
1) Body: Maintains support.
2) Arch: Structural attachments of muscles -
walls of foramen
3) Articular Processes: Join with adjacent
vertebrae.
Vertebral Arch:
1) Spinous Process
2) Transverse Process
3) Pedicle
4) Lamina
- Surround vertebral foramen (houses spinal
cord)
- Shape distinguishes vertebral region.
Cervical (C1-7):
Typical (C3-6):
- Flexion/Extension movements (Head-Neck)
- Features:
1. Bifid spinous process.
2. Transverse foramina.
3. Small “bean shaped” body.
4. Large triangular foramen.
A-Typical (C1,2 and 7):
- Rotation movements of head about neck
- Features:
1. Atlas - no body
2. Axis - odontoid peg (dens)
3. C7 spinous process is not bifid
4. Large oval vertebral foramen
Thoracic (C1-12):
- T2-9 = typical T1, 10-12 = atypical
Costal Facets:
- On transverse processes for rib articulation
- On body for vertebral articulation (costal
demifacet)
- Spinous process angled
- Heart shaped body
- Circular small vertebral foramen
Lumbar (C1-5):
- Thick, stout oval shaped body
- Triangular, large vertebral foramen
- Thick, blunt, spinous process
- Weight bearing
Sacral and Coccygeal bone:
Sacrum:
- Single bone formed from 5 fused vertebrae
- 4 posterior sacral foraminae
- 5th foramina is the sacral hiatus
- Vertebral canal becomes sacral canal.
- Only contains spinal nerves
Coccygeal bones: The tail bone.
Thoracic Cage:
- Consists sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and thoracic vertebrae.
- Sternum: Only 3 parts 3 - its a flat bone.
- Rib:
• Head articulates with vertebral body
• Neck with transverse process
• Shaft
- 1-7 = True ribs
- 8-10 = False
- 11-12 = Floating
Pectoral Girdle (Scapula and Clavicle):

- Sternoclavicular joint: Girdle attached only to axial skeleton - allows movement.
- Glenohumoral joint: The Attachment of upper limb.
- Clavicle:
- Acts as a brace to hold arm away from thorax
- Helps prevent shoulder dislocation
- 2 articulations
- Scapula:
- Held in place by back muscles - not attached to ribs and only has 3 sides and 3 fossae.
Upper Limbs (30 limbs):
- 3 long bones
- 8 carpal bones (wrist)
- 5 metacarpals (palm)
- 14 phalanges (finger bones)
Joints:
1. Glenohumeral (Shoulder):
- Glenoid fossa of scapula and humerus
- Fossa is shallow and weakly supported by ligaments
2. Cubital (Elbow): Humeroulnar and humeroradial
3. Radiocarpal: Wrist
4. Metacarpophalangeal
5. Interphalangeal
1.2 Appendicular Region:
Lower Limb (30 bones):

- 3 long bones
- 1 patella
- 7 tarsal bones (foot)
- 5 metatarsals (forefoot)
- 14 phalanges (toe bones)
Joints:
1. Coxal/Acetabulofemoral (Hip): Deep fossa of pelvis - supported by ligaments.
2. Tibiofemoral (Knee)
3. Talocrural (Ankle)
4. Metatarsal
5. Interphalangeal
Pelvic Girdle:
• Coxal Bone (Hip):

Parts: Ilium, Pubis, Ischium, Hip socket (acetabulum), 1 foramen (obturator)
• Pelvis: 2 coxal bones joined by pubic symphysis.

- Articulate with sacrum at sacroiliac joints
- Regions:
1) False: Above true pelvis - Part of abdomen - contains low intestines.
2) True: Encased in bone Area below pelvic brim
- Important for child birth
- Contains bladder and repro organs
Pelvis Differences (Males/Females):
Female:
- Inlet wider
- Wider ilia
- Shorter less curved sacrum
- Outlet is larger
- Pubic arch angle.
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 7 Articulations
Chapter 8: Articulations
• Articulation (Joint): The point of contact between 2 bones meeting (cartilage and bone, teeth).
Functions:
1) Mobility (Movement)
2) Stability (Holds skeleton together -allows long bones to lengthen) - Epiphyseal plate
(temporary joint).
1.0 Classifications of Joint:
1) Functional: Based on what degree of movement is permitted?

2) Structural: Whether if there is a joint cavity and what type of connective tissue is involved?
Functional Classifications:
1) Synarthrosis: No movement between articulating bones
- e.g. skull sutures and teeth socket
2) Amphiarthrosis: Small amount of movement between articulating bones

- e.g intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
3) Diarthrosis: Freely moveable joints - variety of specific movements.

- e.g. hip/knee/shoulder/elbow.
Structural Classifications:
1) Fibrous joints: Most stable, least mobile joint.
- Held together by dense regular connective tissue.
- No joint space between articulating bones
- Only 3 subgroups
- Types and Examples:
1. Sutures: Fully fused, immovable and protects the brain. Functional: Synarthrosis (Adults),
Amphiarthrosis (Newborn/infants).
2. Teeth sockets: Periodontal ligament binds tissue - immoveable joint. Functional: Gomphosis
3. Interosseus membranes: Long bones forearm/lower leg move slight movement Functional:
Syndesmosis
2) Cartilaginous joints: Less stable, possibly mobile

- Fastened together with cartilage
- No joint space
- Only 2 subgroups
1. Amphiarthrosis (symphysis): No synovial cavity - bones tightly connect by cartilage - permit
little movements. (vertebral discs, pubic symphysis, lateral/medial menisci of knee).
2. Synchondrosis: Bones linked by hyaline cartilage - No movements and its functional type is
synarthrosis (epiphyseal plates and rib cartilages).
3) Synovial joints: Least stable, most mobile - diarthrosis

- Articulating joint surfaces have hyaline cartilage.
- Joint space is a fluid-filled cavity between articulating bones.
- Articular capsule: Fibrous outer layer anchors joint and contains blood supply.
- Synovial membrane (Inner layer) secretes synovial fluid.
- Allows: Joint lubrication/Shock absorption/Metabolic actions (oxygenation/nutrition/
excretion)
- Articular cartilage (hyaline): - Avascular within the capsule - relies on synovial fluid to live.
- Allows: Reduces friction/Shock absorption/Metabolic actions (oxygenation/nutrition/
excretion)
- Described to respect planes:
1. Non-axial (‘0’ axis) - planar
2. Uniaxial (‘1’ axis) - hinge and pivot
3. Biaxial (‘2’ axes) - condylar
4. Multiaxial (‘3’ axes) - saddle, ball and socket
1. Plane (gliding): Non-axial - Does not move around an axis - most simple/least mobile
articulation between flat surfaces of two bones - performs sliding motion. e.g. Inter-tarsal, inter-
carpal, acromioclavicular and vertebrocostal.
2. Hinge: Uniaxial - moves around 1 axis - convex articular surface of one bone interacts with
concave depression of a second bone. E.g. Elbow joint.
3. Pivot: Uniaxial - rotates around 1 axis - has a rounded end surface of one bone fits into a
groove on surface of a second bone - involves atlas and axis, proximal radioulnar. e.g. head
and neck.
4. Condylar: Biaxial - rotates around 2 axis - rounded end surface of one bone fits into a groove
on surface of a second bone e.g. metacarpophalangeal joints - between proximal phalanges/
metacarpals.
- Can move around axis 1 - allows proximal phalanges move toward and away from palm.
- Can move around axis 2 - allows fingers to be squeezed together/fanned out.
5. Saddle: Biaxial - rotates around 2 axis - each bone’s articulating surface has both convex and
concave region - allows a great deal of motion e.g. Thumb (carpometacarpal joint).
6. Ball and Socket: Multi-axial - rotates around 3 axis - articulating surface of 1 bone is spherical
and fits into a cup shaped depression in second bone - allows wide range of motion e.g.
shoulder joint.
Joint Stability and Support:
- Synovial joints allow more mobility but are less stable than other joint types.
- Stability is influenced by:
1) Shape of articulating surface - Supports hip joint.
2) Ligaments
3) Muscles - Important for shoulder and muscle tone provides stabilising force.
4) Tendons - Cross joints - provide stability when muscles contract.
5) Bursae and tendon sheaths - provide stabilisation forces in high stress regions.
Ligaments: Intervertebral and ankle joints for stability.

- Prohibit movements in undesirable directions.
- Limits the range of normal movements.
- Holds and protects important structures in place.
• Bursae: Sac with synovial fluid between tendons, muscles and bone - minimises friction of all
moving parts.
• Tendon sheaths: Long bursae - surrounds and protects tendons as they slide across joint
during movement.
1.1 Hinge Joints:
1) Elbow
2) Knee
3) Ankle
Elbow:
- Very stable hinge joint - has 2 articulations and 3 ligaments supporting capsule.
- Consists:
1. Humeroulnar joint: Larger than humeroradial - located between trochlea of humerus and
trochlear notch of ulna.
2. Humeroradial joint: Located between capitulum of humerus and head of radius.
3. Radial ligament: Located at the lateral side.
4. Ulnar ligament Located at the medial side.
5. Anular ligament: binds head of radius to neck of ulna - stabilises radial head.
Knee:
- Largest diarthrotic joint.
- Articulations - Tibiofemoral and Patellofemoral.
- Can be modified - Tibia rotates on extension
- Relies on ligaments and muscles for stability.
Ligaments:
1. Anterior and Posterior Cruciate Ligament:
- Named wrt tibial attachment
- Tighten on extension
- Limit extension/flexion within joint capsule
2. Medial (weak) and Lateral (strong) Collateral ligament:
- Located outside capsule - limits adduction/abduction
- Stabilise knee during extension by tightening
3. Patella: The knee cap.
4. Menisci:
- Deepen contour of tibial surface to increase femoral
contact and spreads load more evenly.
- Joint stabilisation by guiding condyles during flexion/
extension and limiting abduction/adduction on tibia.
Ankle:
- Articulations: Tibia, fibula and talus.
• Talocrural: Medial and lateral - malleoli form mortise with talus - Tibia articulates 2x (medially
and roof).
- Subtalar joint articulates talus and calcaneus.
- Main movements: Dorsi and Planta-flexion.
- Joint is relatively unstable during planta-flexion - due to the shape of talus.
- Joint is mostly surrounded by capsule - supported by lateral and medial collateral ligaments.
- Medial (Deltoid ligament): Large and strong and stabilises foot during eversion.
- Lateral: 3 separate ligaments
- Posterior tibiofibular ligaments - Stronger than anterior tibiofibular ligaments.
- Anterior tibiofibular ligaments - Weak and can be easily damaged.
- Calcaneofibular.
1.2 Ball and Socket Joints:
Shoulder:
- Articulations (with pectoral girdle):
- Clavicle:
1) Acromioclavicular
2) Coraco-clavicular
- Arm: Glenohumeral (shoulder).
- 9 muscles cross joint to produce 6 movements.
Shoulder Stability:
1) Labrum: Allows to deepen the cavity.
2) Biceps tendon: Passes over joint to help keep humerus head in the glenoid cavity.
3) Rotator cuff muscles: Provide most of strength and stability.
Hip:
- Coxal joint - very stable
- Femur head deep within acetabulum - stabilised by labrum and strong joint capsule.
- Surrounded by strong ligaments - more than 20 muscles act at joint to produce 6 movements.
1.2 Range of joint motion:
• Range of Motion (ROM): Amount of movement joint is capable of under normal circumstances.
e.g. Knee joint moving from a relaxed state to full flexion, and returning joint to full extension.
Types:
1) Uniaxial joints: Tend to have smallest ROM e.g. knee.
2) Multiaxial joints: Tend to have largest ROM e.g. shoulder.
Joint movements:
1) Angular:
• Abduction - away from body line
• Adduction - towards body line
• Flexion - decrease in joint angle.
• Extension - increase in joint angle.
• Hyperextension - extention beyond anatomical position.
• Circumduction (cone-shaped motion) - combination of flexion/extension/abduction/adduction.
2) Rotational: - bone rotates on an imaginary line running down its middle longitudinal axis.
e.g.
3) Other specific joint movements:
• Elevation - upward movement e.g. shoulders upwards.
• Depression - downward movement e.g. shoulders downwards.
• Protraction - movement of a body part in the anterior direction e.g. chest downwards.
• Retraction - movement of a body part in the anterior direction e.g. back downwards.
• Supination - rotation of the forearm and hand - palm faces forward upward.
• Pronation - rotation of the forearm and hand - palm faces backward upward.
• Dorsi flexion - movement of foot upwards, so that the foot is closer to shin.
• Plantar flexion - movement of foot downwards, so that the foot is away from shin.
• Inversion - tilt the sole towards the midline of the body.
• Eversion - tilt the sole of the foot away.
Injuries that occur in Articulations:

Types:
1) Cartilage tears
2) Dislocations
3) Subluxations
4) Bursitis
5) Tendonitis
6) Arthritis (Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis)
Shoulder injuries:
- Mobility is the first that comes at expense of stability - shoulder injuries account more than
50% of dislocations.
• Shoulder Dislocation: specific to glenohumeral joint, where the head of humerus is
traumatically displaced from glenoid cavity.
- Separation is specific to acromioclavicular joint -
very painful.
- It can also be frozen - affects joint capsule.
Knee injuries:
• Bursitis: inflammation of a bursa
Affects:
- A single trauma, repetitive movements/
inflammatory disease like rheumatoid arthritis.
- Common sites: shoulder, elbow, hip and knee
- Symptoms: Pain both at rest and with joint
motion - joint may feel tender, swollen, and warm.
Aging and Joints:
- Decreased production of synovial fluid.

- Thinning of articular cartilage.
- Loss of ligament length and flexibility
- Some effects can be countered by arthroplasty (joint replacement) e.g. hip/knee replacements.
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 7 The Muscular System
Chapter 9: The Muscular System
1.0 General (Simple) Anatomy of Muscular System:
Anterior:
Platysma
Deltoids
Pectoralis Major
Biceps Branchii
Rectus Abdominis
External Oblique
Quadriceps
Soleus
Tibialis Anterior
Posterior:
Trapezius
Deltoids
Latissimus Dorsi
Soleus
Erector Spinae
Gluteus Maximus
Hamstrings
Gastrocnemius
Calcaneal Tendon
1.1 Axial Muscles:
Muscle Groups:
1) Head and neck muscles (not associated with vertebral column).
2) Vertebral column muscles
3) Abdominal muscles
4) Pelvic floor muscles
Head and Neck Muscles:
Head: Neck:
- Facial expression - Sternocleidomastoid and anterior triangle
- Mastication - Pharynx/larynx
- Eye movements
- Tongue movements
- Scalp
Vertebrae column muscles:

- Anterior (flexors): Neck and lower back.
- Posterior (extensors): Erector spinae (of neck and back).
- Deep spinal muscles connect and stabilise vertebral column - provides postural support.
Abdominal muscles:
Muscles (as a group) - flex the vertebral column:
1) Rectus abdominis:
- Flexs trunk/compress abdominal cavity.
- Inserts into linea alba.
- Separated by tendinous intersections (‘6pack’)
2) Internal oblique: Used for rotation and lat flexion.
3) Transverse abdominus: Deep to internal oblique - its core is to compress abdominal cavity.
4) External oblique: Functions same as Internal oblique.
Pelvic floor muscles:

- Support pelvic cavity organs.
- Flex sacrum and coccyx
- Control defecation and urinary movements (through sphincter).
- Perineum is muscular sheet forming floor. (e.g. Anus and urogenital) - roles of sexual arousal.
1.2 Appendicular Muscles:

- Stabilise pectoral and pelvic girdles (shock absorbers and weight support) and allow
movement of limbs.
Major Groups:
1. Shoulder
2. Upper limb
3. Hip
4. Lower limb
Pectoral Girdle:
1) Trapezius: Used as shoulder shrug and scapula stabilisation.
2) Deltoid (Prime shoulder abductor): Assists in flexion and extension.
3) Latissmus Dorsi (Prime shoulder extensor): The Synergyst adductor of
humerus.
4) Pectoralis major (Prime shoulder flexor): Adduct arm/medial rotation Due
to attachments to clavicle and sternum.
Muscles that position the scapula:

1) Serratus anterior:
- Originates on ribs and inserts into anteromedial surface
- Contraction abducts/protracts scapula and moves shoulder anteriorly
2) Pectoralis minor: Helps depress and protract scapula at clavicular end.
3) Coracobrachialis: Adducts arm and can only perform flexion around the shoulder.
4) Rhomboids: 3 muscles R major, minor, levator scapulae - adduct and elevate scapula.
5) Rotator-cuff muscles:
1. Supraspinatus Rhomboids
2. Infraspinatus
3. Teres minor Supraspinatus
4. Subscapularis (anterior surface)
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Rotator cuff insertions and movements:
• Teres minor - Lateral rotation

• Infraspinatus - Lateral rotation.
• Supraspinatus - Medial rotation.
• Subscapularis - Medial rotation.
Upper Limb:
Regions: Each has anterior/posterior compartments - owns a vascular and nerve supply.
Anterior compartment: Only Flexion, Posterior compartment: Only Extension
1) Upper Arm: Acts on 2 joints. 3
2) Forearm: Has 2 layers - most cross twist.
3) Hand: Are intrinsic muscles - performs actions.
1
Anterior compartment: 2 2
Muscles: 4
1) Biceps Brachii (Most anterior) - Elbow flexion flex elbow - main supinator/synergist 6 5
flexor. 87
9
2) Brachialis - Prime mover during flexion.
3) Coracobrachialis - Shoulder adduction and flexion.
4) Supinator
5) Pronator teres
6) Brachioradialis (part of posterior compartment) - Elbow flexion during pronation.
Forearm muscle actions (superficial):

7) Flexor Carpi Ulnaris (FCU) - Most medial - performs flexion/adduction.
8) Palmaris longus
9) Flexor Carpi Radialis (FCR) - lateral - performs flexion/abduction.
Deep forearm muscles: - Extrinsic hand muscles - originate outside hand

compartment
1) Flexor Digitorum Superficialis (FDS) - Proximal finger joints.
2) FD profundus - Distal finger joints.
3) Flexor Pollicis Longus (FPL) - Thumb flexor.
4) Pronator Quadratus (PQ) - Assists pronator teres
- Inter-digitation of FDS and FDP:
Allows individual movement of Metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal
joints.
Posterior compartment:
Muscle: Triceps branchii - Attached to scapula/humerus/ulna - Prime elbow
extensor/shoulder adductor.
Forearm muscle actions (Extrinsic muscles - Superficial/deep groups) - Majority cross wrist joint:
1) Extensor Carpi - Extends Wrist.
2) Extensor Digitorum - Extend fingers 2-5.
3) Extensor Pollicis Longus (EPL) and Brevis (EPB) (Deep forearm muscles)
Intrinsic Hand muscles:

1) Interossei: Deep - Abduct/adduct fingers
2) Lumbricals: Flex Metacarpal joints and Extend fingers at
interphalangeal joints 1
3) Thenar: Thumb muscles - Abduction/adduction opposition 1
4) Hypothenar: Little finger Abduction/flexion/opposition. 2
Lower Limb Muscles:
- Has Anterior/Posterior compartments - Each has own muscles, nerves, blood supply.
- Anterior and posterior functional groups usually cross 2 joints
- Action at proximal joint is opposite of that at distal joint e.g. Anterior pelvis - hip joint flexion.
- Functions of anterior compartment is opposite of that in posterior compartment.
- Medial muscle groups adduct.
- Lateral muscle groups abduct.
Regions: Hip, Thigh, Leg, Foot
6
Thigh Muscles:
Anterior: 7
1
- Quadriceps muscles - Function: knee extension. 8
2 9
1) Vastus lateralis
2) Rectus femoris - flexes thigh at hip as only muscle originates in pelvis.
3) Vastus medialis
4) Vastus intermedius (deep in rectus femoris) - All insert to tibial tuberosity. 3
5) Sartorius - Flex, abduct and laterally rotate thigh
- Medial compartment muscles - Function: thigh adduction
6) Pectineus
7) Adductor longus
8) Gracilis
9) Adductor Magnus - under longs and Pectineus
Posterior:
- Hamstrings crosses 2 joints - Prime knee joint flexor and high extensor.
- Tendons are palpable at back of knee.
1) Biceps femoris - Lateral - attaches to fibula.
2) Semitendinosis - Middle (attach to tibia).
3) Semimembranosis - Medial (attach to tibia) 1
3
Legs Muscles:
Anterior:
Posterior:
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 16 Muscle Tissue/Physiology
Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue and Physiology
1.0 Muscular Tissue (Introduction):
- Moves body by pulling on bones - its inserts (Most movements involves groups of muscles).
- Muscle contraction is a active process, and relaxation is a passive process.
- Number of muscles in body: 640.
Structure:
• Endomysium: Connective tissue around a muscle cell
• Perimysium: Connective tissue around a bundle of muscle
fibres.
• Epimysium: Connective tissue around a muscle.
Muscle Attachments to Bone:
- Can be direct or indirect.

- At ends of muscles collagen fibres of fascicles merge
results in Tendons or aponeuroses.
• Tendons: Attachments - attach muscles to specific points in bones.
• Aponeuroses: Broad sheet provides attachment over large area (skull, abdomen) - involves
more than 1 bone.
- Some muscles attach directly to bone (brachialis, temporalis) - Epimysium fuses to periosteum.
Muscle Architecture:
- Muscle fibres in a single fascicle are parallel

- Organisation of fascicles related to muscle tendon
varies
- Fascicular arrangement is correlated with:
- Amount of power - muscle can produce.
- Range of motion - muscle can produce.
• Muscle Fascicles: A bundle of skeletal muscle fibres surrounded by perimysium.
• Fascia: A sheet of connective tissue beneath the skin - attaches/stabilizes/encloses/separates
muscles and other internal organs.
1.1 Types of Muscles (Fascular organisation):
Major Arrangements:
1) Parallel: Have parallel fibres - Two types: Strap and Fusiform (spindle)
2) Pennate: Feather like arrangement - has 3 sub-divisions.
3) Convergent: Triangular
4) Circular: Sphincter
Parallel:
- Involves a Large range of motion.
- Fascicles run parallel to long axis.
- Most body muscles are parallel.
- Are Strap or cylindrical.
- Diameter increases on contraction.
- Tension in muscle depends on number of fibres.
- Examples: Satorious and Biceps Branchii.
Pannate:
- Fibres run at an oblique angle to tendon insertion
- Have more muscle fibres than parallel muscles
- Has a Stronger contraction than parallel muscles of same size
- Types:
1. Unipennate: All fibres are on the same side of tendon e.g. Extensor digitorum longus
2. Bipennate: Fibres insert either side of a central tendon e.g. Rectus femoris
3. Multipennate: Tendon branches within muscle e.g. Deltoids
Convergent:
- Fascicles extends over a broad area
- Converge on a common attachment site
- Commonly a Triangular shape.
- Versatile because contractions of different parts of muscle may change the pull direction.
- Example: Pectoralis Major.
Circular:
- Concentrically arranged fibres around an opening or recess
- Contraction decreases lumen diameter
- Orifices and sphincters
- Examples: Orbicularis oris.
1.2 Muscular Tissue (Extension):

- Moves body by pulling on bones to - it inserts - Most movements involve groups of muscles.
- Muscle contraction is an active process - ATP releases a mechanical force - muscles cannot
actively relax.
- Specialised for contractions:
• Extensible - Stretches without rupture.
• Elastic - recoils back to resting length.
• Excitable - Receive and respond to stimuli - requires nervous system.
Functions:
1) Movements: Voluntary (skeletal), involuntary (smooth/cardiac) and reflexion.
2) Posture: Muscle tone allows tension to resist gravity.
3) Protection: Support internal organs (abdominal wall, pelvic floor) - Orifices and sphincters.
4) Body Temperature: Contractions allow to generate heat (85% of body heat)
5) Nutrient Reserve: During starvation muscle is broken down to amino acids - Protein storage
e.g. glycogen.
Types: All contain actin and myosin/

1) Skeletal: Attached to bone/skin (facial muscles) - Long cylindrical
2) Cardiac: Walls of the heart
3) Smooth: Walls of hollow organs (other than heart), airways/blood vessels.
Cell Shape/Appearance Description
Long, cylindrical multinucleate cells with striations
Branching cells uninucleate/binucleate - striations

present
Spindle-shaped uninucleate, no striations
1.3 Skeletal Muscle:
Hierarchy (Composed):
- Fascicle - composed of bundles of muscle fibres.
- Fibre (cell) - composed of myofibrils.
- Myofibril - composed of single myofilaments.
- Myofilaments - composed of Actin (light, thin) Myosin (dark, thick)
Features:
1) Sarcolemma: A muscle fibre (plasma) membrane.
- Responsible for membrane potential between sarcoplasm/interstitial fluid (outside sarcolemma)
- Under epimysium.
2) Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm - surrounding myofibrils.
- Stores O2 (myoglobin) and
glycogen; contain
mitochondria.
Features of a skeletal muscle fibre:
- Sarcolemma contains myofibrils - Striations appear microscopically as
alternating:
1) Light Bands: Only thin filaments.
2) Dark bands: Both thin and thick filaments.
- Thick and thin filaments: Arranged in compartments called sarcomeres.
Thick Filaments:
- Made of myosin
- Forms a band (dark)
- Extend towards thin filaments
- Resembles 2 golf clubs twisted together
- During contraction heads link to actin filaments
Thin Filaments:
- Form I bands (light)
- Made of actin, tropomyosin and troponin
- Actin has binding sites for myosin heads
- Tropomyosin covers actin binding site in relaxed muscle
Sacromere as the muscle contractile unit:
- Adjacent sarcomeres are separated by Z discs (in middle of Iight band):
• Anchor actin filaments
• Attachment elastic fibres
- Centre of sarcomere is the M line - holds thick filaments together and anchor point for elastic
filaments
- When muscle contracts distance between Z lines shortens.
Sacromere Regions:
- A band which contains width of the thick filaments.
- Contains zone of overlap of thick and thin filaments - tension is generated during contraction
• H zone: lighter middle region of a band - filaments do not overlap.
• I band: lighter zone where thin filaments do not overlap.
• Also has elastic springlike (titin) filaments - stabilises myofibril and resists excessive stretching.
Tubular systems:
- Surround myofibril and are responsible for contraction.
• T tubules: fluid filled in - folding of sarcolemma; carry action potential to SR.
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR):
- Tubular sacs (like smooth ER) covering surface of myofibrils on either side of T-tubule.
- Contain terminal cisternae
- Have Ca pumps (sarcoplasm to cisternae)
- Release Ca during muscle contraction
- Cisternae forms triads with T-tubule.
Summary:
Muscle Physiology:
- Skeletal muscle contraction can be voluntary and reflexive.

- Stages:
1) Nervous system activation by motoneurons/proprioceptors
2) Stimulation of neuromuscular junction
3) Calcium release
4) Sliding filament activation contracts muscle
Voluntary Movements:
1) Parietal cortex (Ready): Decision to move.
2) Association motor cortex (Steady): Plans to move are stored until required.
3) Primary motor cortex (Go): Instruction to move activation of descending pathways to spinal
cord motoneurons.
4) Motor units causes muscle contraction.
Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): synaptic terminals of LMNs meet sarcolemma
- Motor unit - Allows Muscle fibres innervated by 1 lower motoneuron (LMN).

- Motor end plate - Section of sarcolemma containing receptors for a neurotransmitter called
Acetylcholine (ACh) - folds to an increased area.
- Synaptic cleft - ACh diffuses from presynaptic terminal to sarcolemma.
• Action Potential (AP): Change in electrical potential associated with passage of an impulse
along the membrane of a muscle/nerve cell.
- Driven by Na and K channels.
- Membrane potential changes with change in concentration of these ions.
- Process (During Contraction in the neuromuscular junction:
1) AP is propagated down lower motoneuron axon to its terminal.
2) Ca enters presynaptic terminal.
3) ACh vesicles fuse and release into synaptic cleft of the NMJ.
4) ACh binds to its receptor on sarcolemma at the end plate potential that changes resting
membrane potential (RMP).
5) When the RMP reaches threshold Na channels open beginning the AP in the muscle.
6) This spreads across sarcolemma towards T-tubules.
7) Unbound ACh destroyed by enzyme acetylcholine esterase (AChE) in cleft.
- Prevents continued muscle fibre contraction in absence of additional stimulation.
8) AP travels down T-tubules - releases of Ca from sarcoplasmic reticulum into sarcoplasm.
9) Ca binds to troponin - pulls tropomyosin away from myosin binding site on the actin filament.
10) Myosin head attaches and pulls actin towards centre of sarcomere.
1) Na+ entry
initiates AP -
propagated
along
sarcolemma
and down
the T-tubules
2) AP in T Tubule activates
voltage-sensitive
receptors - triggers Ca
release from cisternae
of SR into cytosol.
6) Tropomyosin blockage
restored - blocks myosin 3) Ca binds to troponin - changes shape
binding sites on actin - by removing blocking action of
contraction ends and tropomyosin - actin active sites exposed
muscle fibre relaxes.
5) Removal of Ca2+ by active

transport into the SR after the
AP ends.
4) Contraction in myosin heads match to

actin and detach, pulling the actin
filaments towards the centre of the
sarcomere - releasees energy by ATP
hydrolysis powers in cycling process.
Axon of motor neurone
Action Potential
Myelin sheath
Ca2+
Axon Terminal
Voltage gated calcium channel
Terminal button
2 AP propagation
Vesicle of acetylcholine
3
6
Voltage-gated Na+ channel 4
Plasma membrane of muscle fibre 5 6
Acetylcholine receptor site Muscle Fibre
Acetylcholinesterase
Neurotransmitter-gated channel Motor end plate
Contraction Cycle:
- Cross-bridge cycle can be repeated as long as the stimulus to contract continues and ATP is
available.
Rigor mortis:
- Starts 3-4hrs after death - lasts 48-72 hrs (myofilaments degenerate after this).
- Cause: Absence of ATP, Ca not resorbed into SR and myosin heads don’t detach.
Contracting scaromere
1) ATP hydrolysis tilts the myosin head
4) ATP breaks attachment of myosin to 2) Myosin head binds to actin

actin
3) Power stroke occurs when ADP and PO43- detach from the myosin head -
myosin pulls actin towards the centre of the sarcomere
Sliding filament mechanism of contraction to generate muscle tension:
Muscle relaxation:
There is no active mechanism for muscle relaxation.

- Sarcomeres shorten but power stroke can’t be reversed to extend Z lines further apart.
1) Elastic forces: Energy spent in stretching tendon is recovered as they recoil to original
dimensions
2) Antagonistic muscles: Quicker to return muscle to original length than elastic forces.
3) Gravity: Speed regulated by eccentric contractions.
Contractions of whole muscles:
Muscle fibres contract by stimulation of motor units.

- Motor units in a whole muscle fire asynchronously - some fire whilst others rest this delays
fatigue, prolonging contraction and produces a graded response.
- As contraction of muscle proceeds more motor units are recruited - Smallest units recruited
first, then larger ones.
- Muscle force depends on:
1. Number active motor units
2. Frequency of activation
3. Resting fibre length Homeostatic Imbalances:
- Increasing contraction force:
- Increases the number of active motor units (summation) Hypotonia and Hypertonia
- Increases the frequency of activation.
Muscle Tone:
- Involves: Resting tension in a muscle - stabilises joint and bone positions
- Requires input from higher levels of nervous system.
- Important for postures:
• Antigravity muscles are more developed and have greater tone.
• In a given stance, to maintain posture, muscle tone is constantly adjusted by muscle fibres
contracting in relays.
Muscle Stimulation Responses:
• Unfused tetanus: When multiple stimuli occur before muscle fibres relax - produces tension.
• Fused tetanus: Increases frequency further - there is no relaxation at all between contractions.
- Allows for great range of force.
Length Tension Relationships:
Wrist Flexed, muscle shortened Wrist extended, muscle at natural length Wrist hyperextended, muscle
stretched
Sacromere B: Optimal length is near 100

of maximal tension
Motor units during contraction and fatigue:
- Muscle fibres of different motor units are intermingled so forces applied to tendon remain
balanced irrespective of - unit is active.
- Tension applied to tendon remains relatively constant even though units cycle between
contraction relaxation.
- Muscle Fatigue occurs when muscle loses ability to contract after exercise/strain.
Isometric and Isotonic contractions:

• Isometric: “Same length” - Muscle doesn’t shorten even though tension in muscle increases.
• Isotonic: Same tone” - muscle shortens and movement occurs.
Isotonic types:
1) Concentric: Muscle shortens.
2) Eccentric: Muscle lengthens - due to contraction of another muscle/pull of gravity/elastic titin
filaments in myofibril - Common to allow precise movements.
Examples:
1) Bicep curl: Isotonic (concentric)
2) Bench dip: Triceps - isotonic (concentric)
3) Deadlifts: isometric: triceps and isometric: biceps
THE ROLE OF ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE):

- Muscle contraction requires many ATP molecules.
- Involves cellular respiration in mitochondria.
- ATP is used every 4-6 seconds per contraction.
- Sources:
1. Creatine phosphate (CP) - used to increase regeneration of ATP.
2. Carbohydrate Glycogen - used during anaerobic Glycolysis.
3. Aerobic respiration of glucose (using fatty and amino acids) - Slower than glycolysis but
results in more energy.
Process:
• 6 seconds (START): ATP is stored in muscles is used first.
• 10 seconds: ATP is formed from CP and ADP.
• 30-40 seconds (END): Glycogen stored in muscles is broken down to glucose as a
condensation reaction to generate ATP.
Muscle Fibre Types involved (Fast and Slow twitch):
- Depends on amount of myosin ATPase.

- All muscle fibres in a motor unit are of the same type.
- Muscles contain mixture of fast and slow in a ratio that depends on usual action of the muscle.
- Ratios can be modified by exercise and training.
Fast oxidative: Contract quickly and release energy rapidly.

- Mostly aerobic but some anaerobic glycolysis metabolism.
- Moderately fatigue resistant.
- Used in walking and sprinting.
Slow oxidative: Contract slowly and release energy gradually - Efficient in using oxygen to
generate energy.
- Uses aerobic respiration for prolonged.
- Sustained (weak) contractions for maintaining posture.
- Fatigue resistant.
Fast glycolytic:
- Few mitochondria is used during anaerobic glycolysis.
- Used for powerful movements of short duration e.g. weight and power lifting.
- Fatigues easily.
Characteristics Slow oxidative Fast oxidative Fast glycolytic
Speed of contraction Slow Fast Fast
Myosin ATPase activity Slow Fast Fast
Primary source for ATP Aerobic Aerobic - few Anaerobic Anaerobic Glycolysis
synthesis Glycolysis
Myoglobin content High High Low
Glycogen stores Low Intermediate High
Recruitment order 1st 2nd 3rd
Rate of Fatigue Slow - fatigue resistant Intermediate - moderate High - fatigue
Activities used Slow oxidative Fast oxidative Fast glycolytic
Marathon, jogging Sprinting Weight and powerlifting
Muscle Hypertrophy and atrophy:

• Hypertrophy: The growth of the size of muscle cells - occurs as a result of physical exercise.
• Atrophy: Decrease in mass of muscle - it can be a partial/complete wasting away of muscle.
Aerobic:
- Produces biochemical changes.
- Slow oxidative allows to increase mitochondria, myoglobin stores and blood vessels.
- Enhances RBC and oxygen capacity.
- Conversion FG to FO fibres.
Anaerobic:
- Muscles due to myofibril enlargement.
- Conversion of FO to FG.
Muscle Fatigue: The Inability to contract despite continued stimulation - muscle tire (unable to
rest).
- Occurs through oxygen build up during prolonged activity.
- Factors:
1. ATP, glycogen and CP depletion.
2. Insufficient oxygen for aerobic metabolism
3. Build up of Lactic acid in muscles
4. Decreased Ach release at neuromuscular junction and LMN activity.
Solutions:
- Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption: Involves heavy breathing follows vigorous
exercise to replenish oxygen.
- Helps:
- Replace depleted myoglobin reserves.
- Synthesis ATP and restores CP levels.
- Convert bloodstream lactic acid to pyruvic acid in kidneys, liver and heart for use in aerobic
respiration.
- Pyruvic acid also converted to glucose in liver.
- Restore normal homeostatic levels in blood pH, electrolyte and temperature imbalances.
Homeostatic imbalance: Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).

- Occurs hours after exercise - lasts 2-3 days - different from pain associated after overtraining.
- DOMs highest when eccentric contractions predominate over concentric/ isometric ones.
- Mechanisms contribute to soreness:
1. Tears in connective tissue/tendons.
2. Cause muscle spasms - pain reduced by muscle stretch
3. Small tears in muscle tissue damage sarcolemma - leads to loss of Ca, enzymes, myoglobin
which activates pain fibres.
1.4 Smooth Muscle:

- Involves TWO layers.
- Are non striated.
- Cells connected by gap junctions (Synchronous contractions).
- Found in visceral organs e.g. stomach, intestines.
Functions:
1) Peristalsis: Propels materials through hollow organs.
2) Form sphincters in digestive and urinary systems.
3) Regulate flow rates through hollow organs by changing diameter e.g. blood vessels
and respiratory tract.
Properties:
- Smooth Muscle are non-striated - there is no motor end plates/T-tubules, sarcomeres/
myofibrils.
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum is loosely distributed through sarcoplasm.
- Thick filaments are scattered trough cytoplasm:
- Myosin heads are along entire length of thick filament, with opposite-facing heads.
- Thin filaments attach to dense bodies:
- Arranged in a spiral shape & connected by intermediate filaments.
Adjacent cells are connected by dense bodies and gap junctions (transmits contraction from 1 cell
to next).
Contraction:
Functional characteristics:
1) Excitation-contraction coupling:
- Ca binds to calmodulin to cause myosin head to attach to actin (uses myosin ATPase)
- Uses 1/100 of skeletal muscle ATP to produce contraction
2) Length tension relationship:
- Not directly related as in skeletal muscle due to myosin and actin distribution.
- Contraction occurs over wide range of lengths.
3) Nervous control: Not all muscle fibres have motoneuronal control.
- Visceral units e.g. gut contraction signal spreads through gap junctions - also respond to
hormonal/chemical stimulation.
- Multiunit cells e.g. iris, arrector pili, uterus, artery walls have ANS innervation to regulate control
4) Tone: Smooth muscle cells are spontaneously active.
- Contraction increases activity and tone - decreases relaxation activity and tone.
1.5 Cardiac Muscle:
Characteristics:
- Singled nucleus.
- 30% of cytoplasm is mitochondria.
- Striped myofibres - Arranged in a figure of 8 to squeeze blood out of heart on contraction.
- T-tubules short and broad.
- No terminal cisternae in SR.
- Has intercalated discs (branched cell) - Connected by gap junctions - allows contractions to be
coordinated.
- Involves Involuntary contractions such as Intrinsic pacemaker function - regulated by ANS.
1.6 Muscular Physiology (Biomechanical Movement):
Muscle Contractions and Levers:

- Muscles applies force to pull bones (levers) to move body parts through joints (fulcrums).
- Skeletal muscles do not work in isolation.
- Nature and site of attachment determines force/speed/direction of contraction:
• All interrelated - Force x distance = resistance x distance (Fd = rd)
- Levers move when force (effort) is applied to move a load against resistance.
Levers:
Changes - based upon:
• Direction of an applied force
• Distance and speed of movement caused by force
• Effective strength of an applied force
Produces mechanical advantage or disadvantage: Depends on location of fulcrum, load/effort.
Mechanical advantage (MA):
- When fulcrum is located farther away from applied force, lever works at MA.
- Allows small force to move a large load over a short distance.
Mechanical disadvantage:
- When fulcrum is located close to applied force and load is further away, lever works at MD
- Reduces the load it can move; however, load can be moved faster over greater distance.
Classes (1st, 2nd and 3rd):
1) 1st class levers (“See-Saw”):
- Fulcrum is between load and applied force.
- Allows load to move in opposite direction to applied force.
- Can produce MA/MD.
- Examples: Flexion/extension (occipital joint neck)/Chewing (temporomandibular) incisors/
molars.
2) 2nd class levers (“Wheel barrow”):

- Force is further away from fulcrum than load
- Load moves in same direction as applied force
- Small force can move large load but more slowly than 1st class system.
- Force is increased at expense of speed and distance
- Produces mechanical advantage
- Only a few muscles in the body are power levers.
- Examples: Quadriceps flex (“tippy toes”)
3) 3rd class levers:

- Most common one in the body.
- Force is close to fulcrum and away from load.
- Load moves in same direction as force
- Works at mechanical disadvantage to move small loads long distances at fast speeds “Speed”
lever
- Example: Bicep curl
How does Load Affect Speed? (“Why is it easier to lift light than heavy weights?”):
- Speed is inversely related to load
- Reason: It takes longer for movements to begin with heavier weights as muscle tension must
exceed load before concentric contraction occurs.
- Each muscle has an optimal combination of tension and speed for a given load.
1.2 Muscle Attachments and Actions:
Muscle Attachments:
- All muscles cross at least 1 joint - usually, bulk of a muscle lies proximal to joint being crossed.
- Muscles attachments:
1. Origin (proximal): Known as the fixed position.
2. Insertion (distal): Attachment moves the muscle towards its origin.
- Other parts of body don’t always follow this rule.
Muscle Actions:
1) Agonist: Prime mover - responsible for the movement.
2) Antagonist: Muscle whose action opposes that of the agonist - Functional opposite of agonist
3) Synergist: Assists prime mover more efficiently - helps the start of the movement and reduces
unwanted movements.
4) Fixators: Assists prime mover to stabilise proximal end of joint or limb during movement.
(e.g. posture stability)
Example: ELBOW FLEXION

Agonist = Brachioradialis
Antagonist = Triceps branchii
Synergist = Biceps branchii
- Muscle action can be inferred by its position as it crosses a joint.

Pectoralis Major (Lateral view): Crossing on the anterior side of a joint producing flexion.
Pectoralis Major (Posterior view): Crossing on the lateral side of a joint producing an extension.
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 12 The Special Senses
Chapter 15: The Special Senses (Communication)
• Special Senses: Senses that have specialised organs devoted to them.

- Utilises special sensory receptors - distinct and localised clusters of receptor cells in head.
- Mediated by cranial nerves.
- Involves:
1. Chemical senses - Olfaction (smell) and Gustation (taste)
2. Photon senses - Vision (sight)
3. Mechanical senses - Audition (hearing) and Equilibrium (balance)
1.0 Chemical Senses:

- Olfactory and gustatory are chemoreceptors - respond to chemicals in solution.
- Olfactory receptors - has a wide range of 400 smell genes and can approx. detect 10K odours.
- Gustatory receptors - has a smaller range - detects sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami.
Olfaction:
- Assesses environment in a semi-intimate way - involved in memory formation and recall.
- Receptor neurones: Contains numerous olfactory receptors - located superior nasal cavity.
Anatomy:
- Paired olfactory organs located superior to the nasal cavity.
- Olfactory Mucosa (2 layers)
1. Epithelium:
- Olfactory receptor neurons.
- Olfactory cilia embedded in mucus layer.
- Support cells and stem cells - regularly replaced.
1. Lamina propria (Connective tissue): Contains olfactory glands - secrete mucus to absorb
odorants.
Odorants: Small molecules - Dissolve in fluid of olfactory epithelium

- Activates receptors of olfactory sensory neurones.
- Dissolved odorants bind to receptor proteins in olfactory cilium membranes.
- Distribution of olfactory information to limbic system and hypothalamus explains profound

emotional, behavioural and memory responses triggered by certain smells.
Gustation:
- Assesses the environment in an intimate way - initiates protective reactions.
- Triggers reflexes involved in digestion such as stomach acid.
- Receptors: Located in taste buds.
- Contains 100K mostly on tongue, also in larynx and pharynx.
- Due to abrasion/burning from food, replaced every 7-10 days (by basal stem cells).
Anatomy:
Lingual Papillae:
1) Circumvallate Papillae:
- 10-11 present - its Large/round - surrounded by deep epithelial folds.
- Each contains 200 taste buds.
2) Fungiform Papillae:
- 200 present, m shaped papillae scattered on the top side of the tongue.
- Each contains 5 taste buds.
3) Filiform Papillae -
- Numerous, rough papillae scattered on the top side of the tongue.
- Do not contain taste buds.
- Provides friction that helps tongue move objects around in the mouth.
4) Foliate Papillae
- 4 – 5 short vertical folds present on each side of the tongue.
- Each contains ~120 taste buds.
Papillae
Circumvallate
Fungiform
Filiform
Taste Buds:
- 50-100 flask-shaped epithelial cells of 2 types.
1) Basal epithelial cells - stem cells that divide 7-10 days.
2) Gustatory epithelial cells with microvilli (gustatory hairs) - are gustatory receptor cells - hairs
project into taste pore.
To taste, chemicals must:
- Be dissolved in saliva —> diffuse into taste pores —> contact gustatory hairs.
- Chemicals activate receptors to produce depolarisation.
- Taste information is conducted to brain through axons of 3 separate cranial nerves:
1. CN7 - Facial
2. CN9 - Glossopharyngeal
3. CN10 - Vagus
Gustatory Receptors:
1) Salty and sour:

- Receptors are chemically gated ion channels - stimulation produces depolarisation of cell.
- Leads to neurotransmitter release:
- Specifically Na+ neurotransmitter for salty receptors.
- H+ for sour receptors.
2) Sweet, bitter and Umami:

- Sweet, bitter and umami receptors are G-Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs).
- Neurotransmitter release:
- Produces depolarisation of cell through activation of secondary messengers
Gustatory Pathways:
1) Taste Sensations:
- Cranial nerves: CN7, CN9 and CN10 carries impulses from taste buds to medulla oblongata.
- Impulses travel to thalamus and fibres branch to gustatory cortex in insular and hypothalamus
and limbic system.
2) Taste-related sensations:
- CN5 senses information about food texture and sensations.
- e.g. spiciness, heat, cooling.
1.1 Photon Senses:
- Vision is based on structure of eyeball - detects photons and delivers CNII to brain.
- Humans can detect photon wavelengths of 400-700 nm.
- Photoreceptors (eye): 250 million per eye - 70% of whole body’s sensory receptors.
- Extraocular Structures: Main functions are protection and movement.
1) Eyelids - protects eye anteriorly
- Contains glands that lubricate eye surface.
- Tarsal (underneath eyelids)
- Ciliary (between eyelids)
2) Lacrimal Gland - Produces tears
- Keeps cornea and conjunctiva moist - contain lysozyme for protection
- Drains onto eye surface and eventually into nose.
- Muscles of Eyeball Movement:
Muscle and its action:
1) Lateral rectus (LR) - Moves eye laterally
2) Medial rectus (MR) - Moves eye medially
3) Superior rectus (SR) - Elevates eye and turns medially
4) Inferior rectus (IF) - Depresses eye and turns medially
5) Inferior oblique (IO) - Elevates eye and turns it laterally
6) Superior oblique (SO) - Depresses eye and turns it laterally.
- Conjunctiva:
- Thin mucus membrane - lines inner surface of eye and lids and anterior portion of sclera -
allows to keep eyeball moist.
- Eyelid portion is pink - ocular part contains blood vessels and merges with cornea.
- Disease: Conjunctivitis (Pink eye)
Eyeball:
1) Structure: 3 layers of eyeball wall: Outermost, Middle and Inner.
1. Outermost (Fibrous):
- Sclera - white of eye
- Anchors eyeball to muscles and maintains shape.
- Continuous with dura mater.
- Has nerves running through it.
- Cornea - Transparent part - allows to see deeper structures of eyeball
- Primary refractive surface of the eye.
- Avascular -obtains O2 from tears and aqueous humour.
- Rich nerve supply - sensitive to foreign bodies, cold air, chemical irritation
2. Middle (Vascular):
- Choroid - Supplies blood to all layers of eyeball.
- Ciliary Body - smooth muscle bundles control lens shape through suspensory ligaments
secretes aqueous humour.
- Iris - Coloured part of eye
- Colour depends on amount and distribution of melanin
- Contains pupil that regulates light entry like camera aperture through sphincter muscles.
- Ora serrata - Dark pigment stops light back scattering - also known as “visual confusion”
3. Inner (Sensory):
- Retina:
1) Outer pigmented layer - absorbs light.
2) Neural layer of photoreceptors - exit eye as optic nerve
• Rods: High resolution colour vision, receptors for bright light
• Cones: Low light, achromatic vision, peripheral vision receptors, not good at sharp imagery
2) Lens:
• Lens: A transparent, biconvex structure in eye that helps to refract light to be focused on retina.
- Ciliary body modifies shape of lens.
- Functions to change focal distance of eye so that it can focus on objects at various distances.
Separated into TWO compartments of eyeball:
1. Anterior Segment: Cornea to lens
- Filled with aqueous humour (fluid) replaced constantly - nourishes structures within
compartment.
2. Posterior Segment: Lens to Retina

- Filled with vitreous humour (jelly-like substance) - stabilises retina and keeps eyeball shape.
3) Posterior Aspect of Internal Surface of Eye:
- Optic Disc (Optic Nerve) - Optic nerve enters/exits eye - no photoreceptors present.
- Macula Lutea and Fovea Centralis: Lateral to optic disc - contains highest density of cones.
- No rods.
- Main area for vision and colour.
4) Focussing light on the Retina:
Pathway of light entering eye:

1. Cornea
2. Aqueous humour
3. Lens
4. Vitreous humour
5. Entire neural layer of retina
6. Photoreceptors
Light refracted along pathway 3 times - Entering cornea and lens and Leaving lens.
- Change in lens curvature allows for fine focusing.

5) Focal Distance:
- Determined by:
1. The shape of the lens - controls by ciliary muscles.
2. Distance between lens and object being viewed - close against distant - eyes best adapted for
distance vision.
- Far point of vision: Distance beyond which no change in lens shape is needed for focusing.
- 6 m of focal distance is normal.
6) Accommodation:
• Accommodation Reflex: Maintenance of focus - eye reflexively adjusts by 3 simultaneous
processes.
- Light from close objects diverges as it approaches eye.
1. Lens shape changes - thickens.
2. Constricts Pupils.
3. Eye converges using the medial rectus muscle.
7) Visual Pathway:
- Conveys visual input from each eye to both hemispheres.
- The visual fields of the two eyes overlap considerably.
- Fibres from lateral portion of each retinal field don’t cross at the
optic chiasm.
8) Pupillary Light Reflex:

- Sensory information comes in through CNII.
- Motor information goes out through CNIII.
- CNII axons flow through the prectectual nucleus in midbrain.
- CNIII nucleus in midbrain flows through ciliary ganglion.
- Sends axons through pupillary constrictor muscle.
- Constriction of this muscle reduces pupil size bilaterally - is a ANS reflex.
1.2 Mechanical Senses:
Hearing and Balance:
- Involves mechanoreceptors - Auditory (hearing) and Vestibular (balance) - responds to
- mechanical pressure/distortion.
- Auditory receptors: wider range - humans can detect ~20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20kHz).
- Vestibular receptors: Smaller range - can detect head position, movement and gravity
Hearing (Audition):
- Distinguishes different sounds - involves localisation (capture or avoid).
- Involves language production and comprehension.
- Auditory receptor neurones (hair cells) - responsible for detection of sound waves found in
cochlea.
Balance (Equilibrium):
- Detection and conscious perception of head position, movement and gravity.
- Compensatory eye movements during head movement (image stabilisation and tracking).
- Postural reflex adjustments following head movements.
The Ear:
Outer: funnels sound waves into auditory canal and transmits sound waves to eardrum.
- Tympanic membrane: boundary between outer and middle ear - connective tissue membrane
that vibrates in response to sound allows the transfer of sound energy to bones of middle ear.
Middle: Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity in temporal bone - contains 3 small bones: malleus, incus
and stapes
- Suspended by ligaments and joined by synovial joints.
- Transmit vibratory motion of eardrum to oval window.
- Tensor tympani and stapedius muscles contract reflexively in response to loud sounds to
prevent damage to hair cells.
Inner: Hearing and equilibrium - receptors for hearing and balance respond to separate stimuli
that are activated independently.
Main Parts:
1) Bony labyrinth - Tortuous channels in temporal bone.
2) Membranous labyrinth - Series of membranous sacs and ducts - filled with potassium-rich
endolymph
The Cochlea:
1. Spiral
2. Conical
3. Bony chamber
- Coils around bony pillar (modiolus) - Contains cochlear duct - houses spiral organ (organ of
Corti).
- Cochlea is divided into 3 chambers.
- Scalae tympani and vestibuli are continuous with each other at the apex.
Route of Sound Waves through the Ear:

Organ of Corti:
- Cells are supported by the basilar membrane.
Cochlear (auditory) hair cells:
- Afferent fibres of cochlear branch of CN8 wraps around the bases of hair cells
- 1 row of inner hair cells (IHC)
- 3 rows of outer hair cells (OHC)
- Has many stereocilia and 1 kinocilium.
- Stereocilia protrude into endolymph - is longest caught in tectorial membrane
- Sound waves vibrate the basilar membrane - causes sterocilia to bend towards kinocilium:
• Opens mechanically gated ion channels - Inward K+ and Ca2+ current causes graded
potential and the release of neurotransmitter glutamate.
Auditory Pathway and Processing:
Pathway:
- Impulses from cochlea pass through spiral ganglion towards cochlear nuclei of medulla.
- Impulses are sent to the superior olivary nucleus through lateral lemniscus to Inferior colliculus
(auditory reflex centre).
- Impulses then pass to medial geniculate nucleus of thalamus, then to primary auditory cortex.
- Auditory pathways decussate so that both cortices receive input from both ears.
Processing:
Definitions:
• Pitch: (frequency) Perceived by impulses from specific hair cells in different positions along
basilar membrane.
• Loudness: Detected by increased numbers of action potentials that result when hair cells
experience larger deflections.
• Localisation: Sound depends on relative intensity and relative timing of sound waves reaching
both ears.
Vestibular Apparatus:
- Vestibule:
- Central egg-shaped cavity of bony labyrinth - contains two membranous sacs.
- Saccule and Utricle:
• House equilibrium receptor regions (macule).
• Responds to gravity and changes in position of head.
- Semicircular Canals:
- THREE Canals (Anterior, Lateral and Posterior) - each define 2/3 circle - lie in 3 planes of space.
- Membranous semicircular ducts line each canal and communicate with utricle
- Ampulla of each canal house s equilibrium receptor region called crest ampullaris - receptors
respond to angular (rotational) movements of the head.
Vestibular Apparatus and Receptors:
- Equilbrium receptors are located:

1) Cristae Ampullares of the Semicircular Canals:
- Monitors dynamic equilibrium such as angular (rotational) acceleration/deceleration
2) Maculae of Utricle and Saccule:
- Maculae receptors - monitors static equilibrium such as linear acceleration/deceleration.
Activation of Crista Ampullaris Receptors:

1) Bending of hairs in crustal causes:
2) Bending of hairs in opposite direction causes:
3) Brain is formed
Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 10 The Endocrine System
Chapter 16: The Endocrine System
Role of the Endocrine System:

Coordination of metabolic activities:
- NS - fast action through neurotransmission - involves short range and local actions.
- Endocrine: Slow acting - uses hormones (blood borne chemical messengers) - involves long
range and widespread actions.
Functions:
1. Reproduction
2. Growth and Development
3. Stress Management
4. Fluid and Electrolyte balance
5. Cell metabolism and energy balance
6. Homeostasis.
Components:
1. Glands: Spreads throughout body (located near midline) - produce hormones and has no ducts
2. Chemical signals (Hormones):

1) Steroids - Made from cholesterol - gonadal (testosterone)/Adreno-cortical hormones (cortisol)
2) Non-Steroidal - Amino acids (tyrosine) e.g. Adrenaline, peptides/proteins (prohormones),
Preproinsulin, preproglucagon.
3) Prostaglandins and Leukotrienes - Fatty acid derivatives - mediates inflammation/pain
responses
3. Receptors - Bind specific hormones towards specific responses.

- Causes by one:
1) Alter plasma membrane permeability and membrane potential by opening/closing ion channels
2) Stimulate synthesis of enzymes/other proteins
3) Activates or deactivates enzymes
4) Induces secretory activity
5) Stimulates mitosis
Mechanisms:
1) Direct gene activation (Lipid soluble (steroid/thyroid hormones)):
- Diffuses into cell to act on intracellular/nuclear receptors that directly activate genes.
2) Plasma membrane receptor mediated activation (Water soluble (non-steroidal hormones)):
- Amino acid based - uses second messenger systems to produce further reactions.
1.0 Control of Hormone Release:

- Stimuli activates endocrine glands from the following sources
Sources:
1) Hormonal - other hormones
2) Humoural - altered blood levels
3) Neural - cell activity
Hormonal Stimulus (Most common):

- Stimulated by releasing/inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus - uses feedback loops.
- Rhythmic activity: Responds to blood levels or activity (menstrual cycle)
- Complementary actions: each hormone interacts different target cell - accomplish common
goal.
Humoral Stimulus:
- In response to altered blood levels of important ions or nutrients.
- Often antagonistic effects.
E.g.
- Ca2+ and Parathyroid Hormone
- Insulin and glucose
- Aldosterone and Na+
Neural Stimulus:
- Preganglionic sympathetic neurones stimulate adrenal gland to secrete catecholamines in
response to stress - leads to synergistic effects.
- Caused by Adrenaline and Noradrenaline.
1.1 Major Endocrine Organs:
1) Hypothalamus:
- Exerts direct/indirect control over activity of many endocrine organs.
- Integrates neural and endocrine systems.
- Mechanisms:
1. Functions as endocrine organ.
2. Secretes seven regulatory hormones to control pituitary gland
3. Has ANS centres controlling adrenal gland.
Hypothalamic hormones excite or inhibit pituitary function
Hormone Main effect
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) Promotes Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) (and
Prolactin (PRL)) secretion
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Promotes Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

secretion
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) Promotes Follicle Stimulating

Hormone (FSH) & Luteinising
Hormone (LH) secretion.
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) Promotes PRL secretion
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) Inhibits PRL secretion
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) Promotes Growth Hormone (GH) secretion
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) Inhibits GH (& TSH) secretion

2) Pituitary gland:
- Sits in pituitary fossa of sphenoid bone - controlled by hypothalamus - connected by
infundibulum.
- Anterior and Posterior portions - Receives chemical and nervous stimulation.
• Anterior: True endocrine gland.
• Posterior: Neural tissue.
Posterior Pituitary Gland hormones - produced in hypothalamus

Affects:
- Breasts
- Uterus
- Kidneys tubules
1) Oxytocin:
- Start uterine contractions/breastfeeding - uses positive feedback loops
2) Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH):
- Reduces urine output - helps avoid dehydration or water overload.
- Hypo-secretion —> diabetes insipidus.
Anterior Pituitary Gland - Produces/secrete 6 hormones

Acts on:
- Thyroid gland
- Adrenal gland
- Gonads
Signals from hypothalamus (hormone releasing factors):
- Secreted into hypophyseal portal blood vessels in infundibulum
- Cause release or inhibition of APG hormones.
Hormones:
1) Growth hormone
2) Prolactin - Both exert effects on non-endocrine targets.
3) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)
4) Adrenocorticotropic hormone
5) Follicle-stimulating hormone
6) Luteinising hormone
3-6 - Tropic hormones:

- Stimulate endocrine glands to release hormones that act on other body
organs/tissues (“turn on” tissues).
1.2 Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones:
1) Growth hormone - General metabolic hormone
- Long-term effects: Acts on muscles/long bones to influence body size (stimulating cell growth).
- Short-term effects: Anabolic (protein/muscle building) short term effects - Fat breakdown.
- Imbalances:
- Childhood - Dwarfism/Gigantism
- Adulthood - acromegaly (large hands/feet/jaw/skull)
2) Prolactin - Act on breast tissue
- Causes secretion and production of breast milk from mammary gland ducts after birth.
- Role in mammary gland development during puberty.
Thyroid Gland:
- Mass located in neck below Adam’s apple - surrounds trachea.
Major metabolic gland:
- Required for normal bone/muscle growth, and nervous system development.
- Synergist of Sympathetic Nervous System (Increases for NA/A - affects heart rate).
- Composed of follicles that contain colloid in lumen.
- Colloid contains thyroglobulin and iodine - the precursor of thyroid hormones.
• Thyroxine: Major hormone secreted by follicles.

• Triiodothyronine: Mainly formed in target tissues by enzymes converting Triiodothyronine and
Thyroxine - Triiodothyronine is more potent.
- Potent regulators of BMR by increasing cellular respiration - controls rate of glucose oxidation
produces heat and energy.
- Affects most cells in body - also necessary for development of nervous and musculoskeletal
system.
• Calcitonin: Functions in regulation of blood Ca levels
- Inhibits osteoclasts stimulates osteoblasts - stops release of Ca from bones - opposite to PTH.
- Used to treat osteoporosis.
3) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)
- Released from APG in response to thyrotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus
- Causes follicle cells to take up colloid.
- Lysosomes break down colloid into Triiodothyronine and Thyroxine.
- These diffuse into blood or lymph vessels to be transported around body.
- Slowly released - can remain in bloodstream up for a week.
- As Triiodothyronine and Thyroxine levels rise it negatively feeds back to hypothalamus to shut
off TRH and TSH.
Parathyroid glands:
- Smallest endocrine glands - contains 4 on posterior surface of thyroid gland - works as 1 gland.
- Parathyroid cells
- Release under humoral control (not pituitary gland)
- Prime regulator of Ca levels in body fluids
- Promotes bone breakdown when low blood Ca levels - Antagonised by calcitonin.
- Promotes excretion through kidneys when high.
4) Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- Acts on Adrenal glands - sits on top of the kidneys.
- Parts that function as separate endocrine glands:
1. Adrenal cortex (true endocrine tissue) - Larger, outer region - produces corticosteroids.
2. Adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine tissue) - Smaller inner region - produce catecholamines.
Adrenal medulla:
- Part of sympathetic nervous system - secretes NA and adrenaline.
- Adrenaline stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, blood flow to skeletal muscles/
heart - NA influences peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure.
- Adrenal gland together with hypothalamus are involved in stress response
• Stress: Anything (physical or emotional) that threatens body homeostasis - helps/harms body.
Adrenal cortex:
- Contains 3 layers - each layer is secrete - different corticosteroid
1. Zona glomerulosa (Outer - mineralcorticiods) - Regulates water/electrolyte balance through
kidneys (hormone - Aldosterone) and regulates blood pressure/volume.
2. Zona fasciculata (Middle - glucocorticiods) - Release Cortisone/cortisol - affects glucose
metabolism and helps resist long term stressors.
3. Zona reticularis (Inner - gonadocorticiods) - Produces sex hormones (testosterone/estrogen)
Cortisol - Released in response to stress - Regulated by stress and regulates stress.
- Burns fuel (fat/protein/carbohydrate).
- Metabolism so as it increases blood sugar through gluconeogenesis/glycogenolysis/lipolysis.
- Inhibits inflammation (e.g. drug cortisone - used as injection to inhibit pain (painkillers))
Acute and Chronic Stress Response:
1. Alarm phase (Acute) - Activation of sympathetic nervous system in response to crisis.
2. Resistance (fights back) - Adrenaline stimulates cortisol from adrenal cortex (through
hypothalamus)
- Short term: Mobilises body metabolism reserves (lipo, glucagono and gluconeogenesis)
- Long term: Counteract stress by reestablishing homeostasis by negative feedback.
3. Exhaustion (chronic stress) - Prolonged and elevated cortisol levels
- Exhaust body’s metabolic reserves and produces immune dysfunction.
- Leads to serious effects on body systems (fatal).
5) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (Gonadotrophin hormone):

- Promotes the production of gametes (male and female reproductive systems).
- Requires GnRH to activate (can be altered without affecting LH).
6) Luteinising Hormone (Gonadotrophin hormone):

- Promotes the production of testosterone and estrogen.
- Triggers ovulation in females and sperm development in men - requires GnRH to activate.
1.3 Gonads (Ovaries and Testicles):
Definitions:
• Ovaries: Produce estrogens and progesterone.
• Estrogen (menstrual cycle): Maturation of reproductive organs and sexual characteristics.
• Placenta: Temporary endocrine gland - secretes estrogens/progesterone/human chorionic
gonadotropin.
- Supports foetus during development
- Progesterone maintains pregnancy.
The Menstrual Cycle:
Hormonal Regulation of Ovarian Cycle:

Testicle (Testes):
• Testicle: Organ of the reproductive - creates the production of testosterone.
- Initiates maturation of male reproductive organs at puberty.
- Causes appearance of male sexual characteristics (voice, hair, strength) and sex drive.
- Necessary for normal sperm production - Maintains reproductive organs in functional state.
Control of Testosterone:
- Increased levels of testosterone (from support cells) feedback to decrease GnRH release and so
decreases FSH and LH levels.
- FSH - Stimulates spermatogenic cells to produce mature sperm.
- LH - Triggers support cells to produce testosterone - acts as a final trigger for spermatogenesis.
Pineal Gland:
- Small gland in roof of 3rd ventricle - secretes melatonin.
Regulates:
- Circadian Rhythms (sleep wake cycles) - Melatonin produced during night.
- Physiological processes show rhythmic variations (body temp/appetite/CV)
- Timing of sexual maturation and puberty - Inhibits GnRH.
Thymus Gland:
- Found in mediastinal cavity - sizes maximum at puberty/then decreases
throughout adulthood.
- Important role stimulation and coordination of immune system:
1. T lymphocytes storage and maturation.
2. T lymphocytes education.
Pancreas - Has exocrine and endocrine glands.

1. Acinar cells (exocrine): Produces enzyme-rich juice for digestion (Lipids,
carbs, and proteins in small intestine - majority of organ.
2. Pancreatic Islets (of Langerhans): Contain endocrine cells - scattered
throughout organ - contains 2 important hormones: insulin and glucagon.
Glucagon and Insulin regulation of glucose:
1) Insulin - 65-80% of Islet cells (hypoglycemic hormone).

- Made by beta cells - release stimulated by increased blood glucose levels during absorptive
state of digestion.
- Effect of insulin is to lower blood glucose levels by:
1. Enhanced storage of glucose in fat and muscle cells.
2. Inhibition of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
3) Glucagon - 15-20% of Islet cells (hyperglycemic hormone).

- Made by Alpha cells - targets majorly the liver - Responds to decreased blood glucose levels.
- Effects:
1. Glycogenolysis - Breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
2. Gluconeogenesis - Synthesis of glucose from lactic acid and non-carbohydrates - release of
glucose to blood from liver.
Hormonal Regulation - mechanisms - most involve negative feedback.
1) Pituitary - target gland: Tropic hormones e.g. TSH and LH.

2) Hypothalamus pituitary gland axis: 2 stages: hypo to APG to target gland.
3) Chemical regulation: Humoral control e.g. blood sugar levels and insulin/glucagon.
4) Nervous system regulation: ANS sympathetic release of adrenaline, NA Hypoxia/pain/stress/
drugs.
Control of hypothalamic and pituitary hormone secretion by negative feedback:
Other complex feedback mechanisms:

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Bhooshan Saravanan 1 of 8 Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Anatomy and Physiology

1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms (Properties):

1.2 Levels of Structure Organisation:

System Type: Description (Process)

Integumentary System (Skin) - Protects body form external environment

Muscular System - Produces movement

Endocrine System - Regulates body functions

Urinary System - Removes metabolic wastes from the blood

- Physiology: Classiﬁed by organ or organ system being studied e.g.:

1.5 The Language of Anatomy and Physiology:

1.6 Anatomical position:

Other positional terms:

1) Supine = facing upwards

1.8 Regional terms:

Other regions of the human body:

Structure Region Structure Region

Cephalon (head) Cephalic region Abdomen Abdominal region

Cervicis (neck) Cervical region Lumbus (loin) Lumbar region

Thoracis (thorax/chest) Thoracic region Gluteus (buttock) Gluteal region

Brachium (arm) Brachial region Pelvis Pelvic region

Antebrachium (forearm) Antebrachial region Pubis (anterior pelvis) Pubic region

Carpus (wrist) Carpal region Inguen (groin) Inguinal region

Manus (hand) Manual region Femur (thigh) Femoral region

Crus (anterior leg) Crural region Coxa (hip) Coxal region

Sura (calf) Sural region

Tarsus (ankle) Tarsal region

Pes (foot) Pedal region

Planta (sole) Plantar

2.0 The Organisation of the Human Body (Body Cavities):

- Abdominopelvic cavity can be divided up into segments or quadrants.

- Abdominopelvic cavity can also be divided into 9 segments using 2

2.1 Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain Body’s Homeostasis:

• Homeostasis: Maintenance of internal environment.

Stimulus —> Receptor —> Hypothalamus —> Eﬀector —> Response

2) Structure and Function:

4) Cell to Cell Communication: Required to coordinate body functions.

5) Body survival needs:

1.0 Atoms and Atomic Structure:

- Atoms are electrically neutral - they have no charge.

1st Shell: (closest to nucleus) can hold 2 electrons

• Some atoms have more than 3 shells.

• Chemical Bonds: The attraction between atoms, ions/molecules - enables formation of

Polar Covalent Bonds:

Non-polar Covalent Bonds:

1.2 Chemical Reactions in Cells (Biochemistry):

Energy Chemical Reactions:

Equilibrium Reactions: Reversible reactions - symbol represents ⇌.

Example: CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)

1.3 Types of Compounds:

• Base: Substances in which acts as proton acceptors (Ionise to produce OH-)

pH: An Logarithmic value used to determine the Acidity and Basicity.

Role in Anatomy/Physiology: Abnormal ﬂuctuations in pH: damage cells/tissues - breaks chemical

• Salt: An ionic/inorganic compound - does not contain H3O+ or OH- ions.

• Electrolyte: An soluble, inorganic compound - associates into cations/anions - conduct

1) Performs Important functions:

• Organic: Substances that contain carbon (always), H, O and N.

Functional Group Importance Examples

Carboxylic acid Releases H3O+ - becomes CH3COOH

Fibrous Proteins (Strand like):

Globular Proteins (Functional proteins):

Nucleotides: “Building blocks of Nucleic acids”

Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA):