ANAPHY REVIEWER hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.
; the
ANATOMY - Study of the structure and shape
of the body and its parts.
Gross - Large structures, observable.
Microscopic - Structures are too small to be
seen with the naked eye.
PHYSIOLOOGY - Study of how the body and
its parts work or function
LVL OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Atoms, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems,
Organisms
ORGAN SYSTEM:
Integumentary - Forms the external body
covering; protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of sensory
receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and
oil glands.
Skeletal - Protects and supports body organs;
provides a framework the muscles use to
cause movement; blood cells are formed
within bones; stores minerals.
Muscular - Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and facial
expression; maintains posture; produces heat.
Nervous - Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles
and glands.
Endocrine - includes: Pituitary gland, Thyroid
and parathyroids, Adrenal glands, Thymus,
Pancreas, Pineal gland, Ovaries (females) and
testes (males). Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells.
Cardiovascular - Blood vessels transport
blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients,
heart pumps blood.
Lymphatic - Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of
debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
Respiratory - Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the
gaseous exchange occur through the walls of
the air sacs of the lungs.
Digestive - Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for distribution
to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.
Urinary - Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates water,
electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the
blood.
Reproductive - Overall function of the
reproductive system is production of
offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of
viable sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites
for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Mammary glands of female breasts produce
milk to nourish the newborn.
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS:
Maintaining boundaries - Boundaries
separate the “inside” from the “outside”
Movements – Locomotion, Movement of
substances.
Responsiveness - Ability to sense changes and
react
Digestion - Breakdown and absorption of
nutrients.
Metabolism - chemical reactions within the
body.
Excretion - Eliminates excreta (waste) from
metabolic reactions; Wastes may be removed
in urine, feces, or sweat
Reproduction - Occurs on cellular level or
organismal level.
Growth - Increases cell size or body size
(through increasing the number of cells)
SURVIVAL NEEDS
Nutrients - Chemicals used for energy and cell
building.
Oxygen - Required for chemical reactions;
respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
Water - 60 to 80 percent of body weight.
Most abundant chemical in the human body.
Normal body temp. – 35 ºC - 37ºC (98.6ºF)
Atmospheric pressure - appropriate for gas
exchange
LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
Terms are used for: Position, Direction,
Regions, Structures
"ANATOMICAL POSITION" - Standard body
position used to avoid confusion
- Stand erect, feet parallel,
arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward
and thumbs pointing
away from the body.
Directional terms - Explain location of one
body structure in relation to another.
Superior (cranial) - toward the head or upper
part of a structure or the body; above.
Inferior (caudal) - Inferior (caudal): away from
the head or toward the lower part of a
structure or the body; below.
Anterior (ventral) - front of the body.
Posterior (dorsal) - backside of the body.
Medial - toward or at the midline of the body.
Lateral - away from the midline of the body.
Intermediate - between a more medial and a
more lateral structure.
Proximal - close to the origin.
Distal - close to the origin.
Superficial - toward or at the body surface.
Deep - away from the body surface; more
internal.
BODY PLANES - Sections are cuts along
imaginary lines known as planes.
Sagittal section - Divides left and right parts.
Median/Midsagittal section – divides equal
left and right parts.
Frontal/coronal – divides anterior and
posterior parts.
Transverse/cross – divides into superior and
inferior parts
BODY CAVITIES
DORSAL BODY CAVITY
Cranial - Houses the brain; Protected by the
skull
Spinal - Houses the spinal cord; Protected by
the vertebrae
VENTRAL BODY C AVITY
Thoracic - Cavity superior to the diaphragm.
Houses heart, lungs, and other organs.
Protected by the rib cage.
Abdominopelvic - Cavity inferior to the
diaphragm. contains the stomach, liver, and
other organs.
“Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions” Control center - Determines set point,
Analyzes information, Determines appropriate
Four quadrants
response.

Effector - Provides a means for response to

the stimulus.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK - Reserves stimulus

POSITIVE FEEDBACK - Reaching end point

9 regions

OTHER BODY CAVITIES

oral and digestive cavities

Nasal cavity

Orbital cavities

Middle ear cavities

HOMEOSTASIS - maintenance of relatively

stable internal conditions. A dynamic state of
equilibrium, or balance.

controlling systems: Nervous and Endocrine

Homeostatic imbalance - A disturbance in

homeostasis results in disease.

3 COMPONENTS

Receptors - Responds to changes in the

environment (stimuli); Sends information to
control center along an afferent pathway.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS:

Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)

Chemical damage (acids and bases)

Thermal damage (heat or cold)

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)

Microbes (bacteria)

Desiccation (drying out)

Structure of the Skin

SKIN Melanin - Melanin is a pigment produced by

Structure:
EPIDERMIS - outer layer
- Capable of being hard and tough
Stratified squamous epithelium
- Keratinocytes (the most common cell)
produce a fibrous protein called
keratin.
5 LAYERS:
melanocytes; Melanocytes are mostly in the
stratum basale of the epidermis.
Epidermal dendritic cell - Alert and activate
immune cells to a threat (bacterial or viral
invasion)
Merkel cell - Associated with sensory nerve
endings; Serve as touch receptors called
Merkel discs.

Stratum basale - Deepest layer of epidermis

Lies next to dermis. DERMIS - Connective tissue; Underlies the
epidermis.
Stratum spinosum - Cells become increasingly
flatter and more keratinized. 2 LAYERS:

Stratum granulosum Papillary layer - Papillary layer (upper dermal

region) contain projections called dermal
Stratum lucidum - Formed from dead cells of papillae.
the deeper strata; Occurs only in thick,
hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) - Blood
of feet. vessels, Sweat and oil glands, Deep pressure
receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
Stratum cornuem - Outermost layer of
epidermis; Shingle-like dead cells are filled
with keratin (protective protein prevents
water loss from skin)

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) - Anchors
the skin to underlying organs.
Other dermal features:
Cutaneous sensory receptors
Phagocytes
Collagen and elastic fibers
Blood vessels
Skin Color – 3 pigments contribute to skin
color
Melanin - Yellow, reddish brown, or black
pigments
Carotene - Orange-yellow pigment from some
vegetables
Hemoglobin - Red coloring from blood cells in
dermal capillaries; Oxygen content
determines the extent of red coloring
Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment,
inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy
Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress
(such as fear), anemia, low blood pressure,
impaired blood flow to an area
Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver
disorder
Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas
Appendages of the Skin
Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands:
A. Sebaceous glands - Located all over
the skin except for palms and soles,
Produce sebum (oil), Makes skin soft
and moist, Prevents hair from
becoming brittle, Kills bacteria
B. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands- Produce
sweat, Widely distributed in skin
Two types of sudoriferous glands:
Eccrine glands - Open via duct to sweat pores
on the skin’s surface; Produce acidic sweat:
Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic
waste; Function in body temperature
regulation Apocrine glands - Ducts empty into
hair follicles in the armpit and genitals; Begin
to function at puberty; Play a minimal role in
body temperature regulation
Hair - Produced by hair follicle; Consists of
hard keratinized epithelial cells; Melanocytes
provide pigment for hair color
Hair anatomy:
Hair follicles - Dermal region provides a blood
supply to the hair bulb (deepest part of the
follicle); Arrector pili muscle connects to the
hair follicle to pull hairs upright when we are
cold or frightened.
Nails - Heavily keratinized, scalelike
modifications of the epidermis.
Parts of a nail
- Free edge
- Body is the visible attached portion
- Nail folds are skin folds that overlap
the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the
proximal edge
- Root of nail is embedded in skin
- Growth of the nail occurs from nail
matrix
Infections and allergies
Athlete’s foot - Caused by fungal infection
(Tinea pedis); Itchy, red peeling skin
between the toes
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles - Caused by
inflammation of hair follicles; Carbuncles are
clusters of boils caused by bacteria
Cold sores (fever blisters) - Caused by human
herpesvirus 1; Blisters itch and sting
Contact dermatitis - Caused by exposure to
chemicals that provoke allergic responses;
Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
Impetigo - Caused by bacterial infection; Pink,
fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose
Psoriasis - Triggered by trauma, infection,
hormonal changes, or stress; Red, epidermal
lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that
itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed
Burns - Tissue damage and cell death caused
by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or
chemicals.
Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of
nines: Body is divided into 11 areas for quick
estimation; Each area represents about 9
percent of total body surface area
First-degree burn (superficial burn) - Only
epidermis is damaged; Skin is red and
swollen
Second-degree burn (partial-thickness
burn) - Epidermis and superficial part of
dermis are damaged; Skin is red, painful,
and blistered; Regrowth of the epithelium
can occur
Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body
Membranes:
Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area
is painless; Burned area is blanched (gray- Vernix caseosa - an oily covering, is apparent
white) or black at birth

Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle,
tendons); Requires surgery and grafting; May
require amputation
Milia - small white spots, are common at birth
and disappear by the third week
Acne - may appear during adolescence
In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well
hydrated

Skin cancer - Most common form of cancer in
humans; Most important risk factor is
overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in
sunlight and tanning beds
classified two ways:
Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not
spread
With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed
to excessive sunlight
Balding and/or graying occurs with aging;
both are genetically determined; other factors
that may contribute include drugs and
emotional stress.

Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded

other body areas

Most common types of skin cancer

Basal cell carcinoma - Least malignant and

most common type of skin cancer

Squamous cell carcinoma - be induced by UV

exposure; stratum spinosum; appear as scaly,
reddened papules that gradually form shallow
ulcers.

Malignant melanoma - Most deadly of skin

cancers, but accounts for only 5 percent of
skin cancers; Arises from melanocytes

A = Asymmetry - Two sides of pigmented mole
do not match
B = Border irregularity - Borders of mole are
not smooth
C = Color - Different colors in pigmented area
D = Diameter - Spot is larger than 6 mm in
diameter
E = Evolution - One or more of the ABCD
characteristics is evolving
The Muscular System - responsible for
all types of body movement.
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are
elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
- Contraction and shortening of
muscles are due to the movement of
microfilaments
- Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to
“muscle”
- Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”
Three basic muscle types are found in the Perimysium—wraps around a fascicle
body (bundle) of

Skeletal Cardiac Smooth muscle fibers

muscle muscle muscle
Epimysium—covers the entire skeletal
LOCA- Attach to Walls of Walls of muscle; blends into a connective tissue
TION: bones; heart. hallow attachment
facial visceral
Tendons—cordlike structures
muscles; organs
skin Aponeuroses—sheetlike structures

CELL Single, Branching Single, Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium

SHAPE: very long, chains, fusiform
cylindrical UNI- UNI-
MULTI- NUCLEATE NUCLEATE
NUCLEATE

CON- EPIMYSIUM, ENDO- ENDO-

NECTIV PERIMYSIUM, MYSIUM MYSIUM
ENDOSIUM ATTACH TO
E SKELETON
TISSUE OF HEART

REGU- VOLUNTARY IN- IN-

LATION: VOLUNTARY VOLUNTARY

SPEED SLOW TO SLOW VERY

CON- SPEED SLOW
TRAC-
TION:

SOUND: NO YES YES, IN

SOME

SKELETAL MUSCLE
Smooth muscle
– Attached by tendons to bones.
– Large, cigar-shaped, and
multinucleate.
– Known as straited muscle.
– Voluntary
– Surrounded by connective tissue.
Endomysium—encloses a single muscle
fiber
- No striations
- Involuntary—no conscious control
- Found mainly in the walls of hollow
visceral organs (such as stomach,
urinary bladder, respiratory passages)
- Spindle-shaped fibers that are
uninucleate
- Contractions are slow and sustained
Cardiac muscle
- Striations
- Involuntary
- Found only in the walls of the heart
- Uninucleate
- Branching cells joined by gap
junctions called
- intercalated discs
- Contracts at a steady rate set by
pacemaker
Sarcomere
skeletal muscle has three
- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
other important roles: - Structural and functional unit of
- Maintain posture and body position skeletal muscle
- Stabilize joints - Organization of the sarcomere
- Generate heat
a. Thick filaments = myosin filaments
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle - Composed of the protein myosin
Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane - Contain ATPase enzymes to release
energy for muscle
Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell - Projections known as myosin head
(cross bridges – when link thick and
a) Light (I) bands
thin filaments during contraction)
- Contains only thin filaments
b. Thin filaments = actin filaments
- Z disc is a midline interruption
- Composed of the contractile protein
b) Dark (A) bands
actin
- give the muscle its striated (banded)
- Actin is anchored to the Z disc
appearance
- Contains the entire length of the thick
filaments
- H zone is a lighter central area
- M line is in center of H zone

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

- Specialized smooth endoplasmic

reticulum
- Surrounds the myofibril
- Stores and releases calcium

Stimulation and Contraction of Single

Skeletal Muscle Cells

Functional properties of skeletal muscles

Irritability (also called responsiveness)—
ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
Neuromuscular junction
Contractility—ability to forcibly shorten when
- Association site of axon terminal of
an adequate stimulus is received
the motor neuron and sarcolemma of
Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be a muscle
stretched
Neurotransmitter
Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting
- Chemical released by nerve upon
length after stretching
arrival of nerve impulse in the axon
The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential terminal
- Acetylcholine (ACh) is the
- Skeletal muscles must be stimulated
neurotransmitter that stimulates
by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to
skeletal muscle
contract
Synaptic cleft
Motor unit—one motor neuron and all
the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by - Gap between nerve and muscle filled
that neuron with interstitial fluid
- Although very close, the nerve and
muscle do not make contact

STEP BY STEP

When a nerve impulse reaches the axon

terminal of the motor neuron,

Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium

ions enter the axon terminal

Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some

synaptic

vesicles to release acetylcholine (ACh)

Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft

and attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma
of the muscle cell

Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the

sarcolemma becomes temporarily more
permeable to sodium ions (Na+)

- Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the

cell
- More sodium ions enter than
potassium ions leave
- Establishes an imbalance in which
interior has more positive ions
(depolarization), thereby opening
more Na+ channels
Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium
channels that allow sodium ions to enter the
cell

- An action potential is created

- Once begun, the action potential is
unstoppable
- Conducts the electrical impulse from
one end of the cell to the other

Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks

down acetylcholine into acetic acid and
choline

- AChE ends muscle contraction

- A single nerve impulse produces only
one contraction
Cell returns to its resting state when:
1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the
cell
2. Sodium-potassium pump moves
sodium and potassium ions back to
their original positions

Events at the Neuromuscular Junction

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The
Sliding Filament Theory

What causes filaments to slide?

- Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory

proteins on thin filaments and expose
myosin-binding sites, allowing the
myosin heads on the thick filaments
to attach
- Each cross bridge pivots, causing the
thin filaments to slide toward the
center of the sarcomere
- Contraction occurs, and the cell
shortens
- During a contraction, a cross bridge
attaches and detaches several times
- ATP provides the energy for the
sliding process, which continues as
long as calcium ions are present

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole
Graded responses
- Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-
none,” meaning it will contract to its
fullest when stimulated adequately
- Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all
fibers may be stimulated during the
same interval
- Different combinations of muscle
fiber contractions may give differing
responses
- Graded responses—different degrees
of skeletal muscle shortening
Graded responses can be produced in two
ways
- By changing the frequency of muscle
stimulation
- By changing the number of muscle
cells being stimulated at one time
Muscle response to increasingly rapid
stimulation
- Muscle twitch
- Single, brief, jerky contraction
- Not a normal muscle function
- In most types of muscle activity, nerve
impulses are delivered at a rapid rate
- As a result, contractions are
“summed” (added) together, and one
contraction is immediately followed
by another
- When stimulations become more
frequent, muscle contractions get
stronger and smoother
- The muscle now exhibits unfused
(incomplete) tetanus
- Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved
when the muscle is stimulated so
rapidly that no evidence of relaxation
is seen
- Contractions are smooth and
sustained
Muscle response to stronger stimuli
- Muscle force depends upon the
number of fibers stimulated
- Contraction of more fibers results in
greater muscle tension
- When all motor units are active and
stimulated, the muscle contraction is
as strong as it can get
Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction
ATP
- Only energy source that can be used
to directly power muscle contraction
- Stored in muscle fibers in small
amounts that are quickly used up
- After this initial time, other pathways
Three pathways to regenerate ATP
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine
phosphate
2. Aerobic pathway
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid
formation must be utilized to produce ATP
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine - Huge amounts of glucose are needed
phosphate (CP)—fastest

- Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy

molecule
- After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
- CP transfers a phosphate group to
ADP to regenerate ATP
- CP supplies are exhausted in less than
15 seconds
- 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule

Aerobic respiration

- Supplies ATP at rest and during

light/moderate exercise
- A series of metabolic pathways, called
oxidative phosphorylation, use oxygen
and occur in the mitochondria
- Glucose is broken down to carbon
dioxide and water, releasing energy
(about 32 ATP)
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
- This is a slower reaction that requires
continuous 1delivery of oxygen and - If muscle activity is strenuous and
nutrients prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
- Suspected factors that contribute to
muscle fatigue include:
o Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
o Oxygen deficit and lactic acid
accumulation
o Decrease in energy (ATP)
supply
- After exercise, the oxygen deficit is
repaid by rapid, deep breathing

Types of Muscle Contractions

Isotonic contractions

- Myofilaments are able to slide past

- Reaction that breaks down glucose
without oxygen
- Glucose is broken down to pyruvic
acid to produce about 2 ATP
- Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid,
which causes muscle soreness
- This reaction is not as efficient, but it
is fast
each other during contractions
- The muscle shortens, and movement
occurs
- Example: bending the knee; lifting
weights, smiling
Isometric contractions
 - Muscle filaments are trying to slide,
but the muscle is pitted against an
immovable object
- Tension increases, but muscles do not
shorten
- Example: pushing your palms together
in front of you
Muscle Tone
- State of continuous partial
contractions
- Result of different motor units being
stimulated in a systematic way
- Muscle remains firm, healthy, and
constantly ready for action
Effect of Exercise on Muscles
Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and
endurance
- Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking,
jogging) results in stronger, more
flexible muscles with greater
resistance to fatigue
o Makes body metabolism
more efficient
o Improves digestion,
coordination
- Resistance (isometric) exercise
(weight lifting) increases muscle size
and strength
o Individual muscle fibers
enlarge
Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names
Types of Body Movements
- Muscles are attached to no fewer
than two points
o Origin: attachment to an
immovable or less movable
bone
o Insertion: attachment to a
movable bone
- When the muscle contracts, the
insertion moves toward the origin
- Body movement occurs when muscles
contract across joints
-
Types of Body Movements
Flexion - Decreases the angle of the joint
Extension - Opposite of flexion
Rotation - Movement of a bone around its
longitudinal axis
Abduction - Movement of a limb away from
the midline
Adduction - Opposite of abduction;
Movement of a limb toward the midline
Circumduction - Combination of flexion,
extension, abduction, and adduction
Dorsiflexion - Lifting the foot so that the
superior surface approaches the shin (toward
the dorsum)
Plantar flexion - Pointing the toes away from
the head
Inversion - Turning sole of foot medially
Eversion - Turning sole of foot laterally
Supination - Forearm rotates laterally so palm o Example: sterno (on the
faces anteriorly; Radius and ulna are parallel sternum)
- By shape of the muscle
Pronation - Forearm rotates medially so palm
o Example: deltoid (triangular)
faces posteriorly; Radius and ulna cross each
- By action of the muscle
other like an X
o Example: flexor and extensor
Opposition - Moving the thumb to touch the (flexes or extends a bone)
tips of other fingers on the same hand

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body

- Muscles can only pull as they contract

—not push
- In general, groups of muscles that
produce opposite actions lie on
opposite sides of a joint

Prime mover—muscle with the major

responsibility for a certain movement

Antagonist—muscle that opposes or reverses

a prime mover

Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover in Developmental Aspects of the Muscular

a movement or reduces undesirable System
movements
- Increasing muscular control reflects
Fixator—specialized synergists that hold a the maturation of the nervous system
bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime - Muscle control is achieved in a
mover superior/inferior and proximal/distal
direction
- To remain healthy, muscles must be
Naming Skeletal Muscles exercised regularly
- Without exercise, muscles atrophy
Muscles are named on the basis of several
- With extremely vigorous exercise,
criteria
muscles hypertrophy
- By direction of muscle fibers - As we age, muscle mass decreases,
o Example: rectus (straight) and muscles become more sinewy
- By relative size of the muscle - Exercise helps retain muscle mass and
o Example: maximus (largest) strength.
- By location of the muscle
o Example: temporalis
(temporal bone)
- By number of origins
o Example: triceps (three
heads)
- By location of the muscle’s origin and
insertion