HUMAN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

ANATOMY - Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts.
Gross - Large structures, observable.
Microscopic - Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
PHYSIOLOOGY - Study of how the body and its parts work or function
LVL OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
Atoms, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems, Organisms

ORGAN SYSTEM:
Integumentary - Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from
injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and
sweat and oil glands.
Skeletal - Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals.
Muscular - Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial
expression; maintains posture; produces heat.
Nervous - Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
Endocrine - includes: Pituitary gland, Thyroid and parathyroids, Adrenal glands,
Thymus, Pancreas, Pineal gland, Ovaries (females) and testes (males). Glands secrete
hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
Cardiovascular - Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood.
Lymphatic - Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in
immunity.
Respiratory - Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Digestive - Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Urinary - Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
Reproductive - Overall function of the reproductive system is production of
offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in
delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and
female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and
development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to
nourish the newborn.

NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS:

Maintaining boundaries - Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
Movements – Locomotion, Movement of substances.
Responsiveness - Ability to sense changes and react
Digestion - Breakdown and absorption of nutrients.
Metabolism - chemical reactions within the body.
Excretion - Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions; Wastes may be
removed in urine, feces, or sweat
Reproduction - Occurs on cellular level or organismal level.
Growth - Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the number of cells)

SURVIVAL NEEDS
Nutrients - Chemicals used for energy and cell building.
Oxygen - Required for chemical reactions; respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
Water - 60 to 80 percent of body weight. Most abundant chemical in the human
body.
Normal body temp. – 35 ºC - 37ºC (98.6ºF)
Atmospheric pressure - appropriate for gas exchange
HOMEOSTASIS - maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions. A dynamic
state of equilibrium, or balance. controlling systems: Nervous and Endocrine
Homeostatic imbalance – Occurs when cells of the body experienced deficiency or
exposed to toxins. A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease.
MAINTAINING HEMEOSTASIS-The body communicates through neural and
hormonal control systems.
Receptor-Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
Control center-Determines set point, analyzes information, determines appropriate
response
Effector-Provides a means for response to the stimulus
Negative feedback- Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
Positive feedback-Increases the original stimulus to push the variable further
DIRECTIONAL TERMS- Explain location of one body structure in relation to another.
Superior (cranial) - toward the head or upper part of a structure or the body;
above.
Inferior (caudal) - Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward the lower part of
a structure or the body; below.
Anterior (ventral) - front of the body.
Posterior (dorsal) - backside of the body.
Medial - toward or at the midline of the body.
Lateral - away from the midline of the body.
Intermediate - between a more medial and a more lateral structure.
Proximal - close to the origin.
Distal - close to the origin.
Superficial - toward or at the body surface.
Deep - away from the body surface; more internal.

BODY CAVITIES
DORSAL BODY CAVITY-protects fragile nervous system organs.
Cranial - Houses the brain; Protected by the skull
Spinal - Houses the spinal cord; Protected by the vertebrae

BODY PLANES and SECTION

Sections- cut portions of the body. One of its organ made along of the planes.
Plane-flat surface of a cut body
Sagittal plane- vertical plane that divides body to left and right.
Median plane/Midsagittal plane- lies exact in the midline
Parasagittal plane- lines offset from midline.
Frontal plane-vertical plane that divides body from front & back.
Transverse/horizontal plane- horizontal plane from left to right, separating
superior and inferior parts.
Oblique sections-cut diagonally, confusing & difficult to interpret, rarely used.

CELLS: THE LIVING UNIT

CELLS- structural unit of all living things.
Nucleus- control center of cell.

THREE MAIN REGIONS

PLASMA MEMBRANE- barrier of nucleus. Outer layer of barrier. Consist of a
double phospholipid membrane.
NUCLEUS- controls cellular activity. lies in the cells center. Contains one or more
nucleoli.
CYTOPLASM-intracellular fluid packed w/ organelles.
PLASMA MEMBRANE- barrier for cell contents. Also contains protein, cholesterol,
and glycoproteins.
MICROVILLI-FINGER- like projections that increase surface area for absorption.
CELL MEMBRANE JUNCTIONS- provide contact or cohesion between neighboring
cells.

Tight junctions-prevents from passing through extracellular space between

adjacent cells. Restrict the movements of membrane protein “impermeable”
junctions.
Desmosomes- “anchoring junctions”. Binds neighboring cells together in sheets.
Contributes to a continuous internal network of strong fibers that act as “guywires”.
Gap Junctions- “communicating junctions”. Forms when plasma membrane of
adjacent cells connect. Help substances pass from one cell to another.
CYTOPLASM- material outside the nucleus and inside the plasma membrane.
CYTOSOL- fluid that suspends other elements.
ORGANELLES- metabolic machinery of the cell.
INCLUSIONS- non-functioning units.
RIBOSOMES-made of protein and RNA. Sites of protein synthesis. Two locations,
free in cytoplasm & attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances.

TWO TYPES OF ER
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM-studded with ribosomes. Site where building
materials of cellular membrane are formed.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM- functions in cholesterol synthesis and
breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification of drugs.

GOLGI APPARATUS- modifies and packages proteins.

LYSOSOMES- contain enzymes that digest non-usable materials within cell.
PEROXIXOMES- membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes. Detoxifies harmful
substance. Break down free radicals.
MITOCHONDRIA- “powerhouse” of the cell. Change shape continuously. Carry out
reactions where oxygen is used break down food.
CYTOSKELETON- network of protein structures that extend throughout the
cytoplasm. Provides the cell with an internal framework.
Three types of Cytoskeleton- Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments,
Microtubules.
CENTRIOLES- rod- shaped bodies made of microtubules. Direct formation of mitotic
spindle during cell division.
CELLULAR PROJECTIONS- not found in all cells. Used for movement.
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT- movement of substance into and out of the cell.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT- no energy is required.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT- the cell must provide metabolic energy,
SULOTION- homogenous mixture of two or more components.
SOLVENT- dissolving medium
SOLUTES- components in smaller quantities within a solution.
INTRACELLULAR FLUID- nucleoplasm and cytosol.
INTERSTITIAL FLUID- fluid on the exterior of the cell.
DIFFUSION- particles tend to distribute themselves evenly within solution.

TYPES OF DIFFUSION
SIMPLE DIFFUSION- unsatisfied process. Solutes enough lipid-soluble materials or
small enough to pass through membranes pores.
OSMOSIS- simple diffusion of water. Highly polar water easily crosses the plasma
membrane.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION- substances require a protein carrier for passive
transport.
FILTRATION- water and solutes are forced through a membrane by fluid, or
hydrostatic pressure.

TWO COMMON FORMS OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

SOLUTE PUMPING- amino acids, some sugars and ions are transported pumps.
BULK TRANSPORT-Exocytosis, Moves materials out of the cell. Material is carried
in a membranous vesicle. Endocytosis, extracellular substances are engulfed by being
enclosed in a membranous vesicle.

TYPE OF ENDOCYTOSIS
-Phagocytosis-cell eating
-Pinocytosis-cell drinking

Cells two major periods

Interphase-cells grows, cells carries on metabolic processes.
Cell division- cell replicates itself, function is to produce more cells for growth and
repair processes.
DNA REPLICATION- genetic material duplicated and readies a cell for division into
two cells.
DNA- uncoils and each side serves as a template.
MITOSIS- division of the nucleus. Results in the formation of two daughter nuclei.
CYTOKINESIS- division of cytoplasm, begins when mitosis is near completion.
Results in the formation of two daughter cells.

Stages of mitosis
INTERPHASE- no cell division occurs, the cell carries out normal metabolic activity
and growth.
PROPHASE- first part of cell division, centromeres migrate to the poles.
METAPHASE- spindle from centromeres are attached to chromosomes that are
aligned in the center of the cell.
ANAPHASE- daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles. The cell begins to
elongate.
TELOPHASE- daughter nuclei is begin forming, a cleavage furrow begins to form.
GENE- DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein.
RNA- is essential for protein synthesis.
TRANSFER RNA (tRNA)- transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for
building the protein.
RIBOSOMAL RNA (r RNA)- helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built.
MESSENGER RNA- carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus
to the ribosome.
TRANSCRIPTION-transfer information from DNA’s base sequence to the
complimentary base sequence of m RNA.
TRANSLATION- base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid
sequence. Amino acids are building blocks of proteins.
BODY TISSUES-Cells are specialize for particular functions
TISSUES- groups of cells with similar structure and function.

FOUR PRIMARY TYPE(BT)

-Epithelium -
Connective tissue
-Nervous Tissue
-Muscle

EPITHELIAL TISSUES FOUND IN DIFFERENT AREAS

-Body covering
-Body linings
-Glandular tissue

FUNCTIONS
-Protection
-Absorption
-Filtration
-Secretion

EPITHELUIM CHARACTERISTICS
-CELLS FIT CLOSELY TOGETHER
-TISSUE LAYER ALWAYS HAS ONE FREE SURFACE
-THE LOWER SURFACE IS BOUND BY A BASEMENT MEMBRANE
-AVASCULAR (HAVE NO BLOOD)
-REGENERATE EASILY IF WELL NOURISHED

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIUM
SIMPLE- one layer
STRATIFIED-more than one layer

 SHAPE OF CELLS
SQUAMOUS- Flattened
CUBOOIDAL- Cube- shaped
COLUMNAR- Column-like
SIMPLE SQUAMUS
>single layer of flat cells.
>Usually forms membranes.
> Lines body cavities.
>Lines lungs and capillaries.
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
>Single layer of cube-like cells
>Common in glands and their ducts
>Forms walls of kidney tubules
>Covers the ovaries

SIMPLE COLUMNAR
>Sigle layer of tall cells
>Often includes goblet cells, which produce mucus
>lines digestive tract

PSEUDOSTRATIFIED
> Sigle layer, but some cells are shorter than others
> Often looks like a double cell layer
>Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract
>May function in absorption or secretion
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
>Cells at the free edge are flattened
>found as a protective covering where friction is common
>Locations, skin, mouth, esophagus
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL-two layers of cuboidal cells
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL- surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size
and shaped
STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL AND COLUMNAR- rare in human body. Found mainly in
ducts of large glands.
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM- shape of cells depends upon the amount of
stretching. Lines organs of the urinary system
GLAND- one or more cells that secretes a particular product.

TWO MAJOR GLAND TYPES

Endocrine-Ductless, Secretions are hormones
Exocrine Gland- Empty through ducts to the epithelial surface. Include
sweat and oil glands.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE-found everywhere in the body. Includes the most abundant
and widely distributed tissues.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
>Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
>Chemical damage (acids and bases)
>Thermal damage (heat or cold)
>Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight)
>Microbes (bacteria)
>Desiccation (drying out)

Structure of the Skin

SKIN Structure:
EPIDERMIS - outer layer
-Capable of being hard and tough Stratified squamous epithelium
-Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a fibrous protein called keratin.

5 LAYERS:
Stratum basale - Deepest layer of epidermis Lies next to dermis.
Stratum spinosum - Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized.

Stratum granulosum
Stratum lucidum - Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata; Occurs only in
thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet.
Stratum cornuem - Outermost layer of epidermis; Shingle-like dead cells are filled
with keratin (protective protein prevents water loss from skin)
Melanin - Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes; Melanocytes are mostly
in the stratum basale of the epidermis.
Epidermal dendritic cell - Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or
viral invasion)
Merkel cell - Associated with sensory nerve endings; Serve as touch receptors
called Merkel discs.
DERMIS - Connective tissue; Underlies the epidermis.

2 LAYERS:
Papillary layer - Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain projections called
dermal papillae.
Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) - Blood vessels, Sweat and oil glands, Deep
pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)

Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) -Anchors the skin to underlying organs.

Other dermal features:

>Cutaneous sensory receptors
>Phagocytes
>Collagen and elastic fibers
>Blood vessels

Skin Color – 3 pigments contribute to skin color

Melanin - Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
Carotene - Orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
Hemoglobin - Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries; Oxygen content
determines the extent of red coloring
Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment, inflammation, hypertension, fever,
or allergy
Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as fear), anemia, low blood
pressure, impaired blood flow to an area
Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder
Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas

Appendages of the Skin

Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands:
A. Sebaceous glands - Located all over the skin except for palms and soles,
Produce sebum (oil), Makes skin soft and moist, Prevents hair from becoming brittle,
Kills bacteria
B. Sweat (sudoriferous) glands- Produce sweat, Widely distributed in skin

Two types of sudoriferous glands:

Eccrine glands - Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface; Produce acidic
sweat: Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste; Function in body
temperature regulation
Apocrine glands - Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and genitals; Begin to
function at puberty; Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation

Hair - Produced by hair follicle; Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells;

Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
Hair follicles - Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb (deepest part
of the follicle); Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs upright
when we are cold or frightened.
Nails - Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the epidermis.

Parts of a nail
-Free edge
-Body is the visible attached portion
-Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the proximal
edge
-Root of nail is embedded in skin

Infections and allergies

Athlete’s foot - Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis); Itchy, red peeling
skin between the toes
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles - Caused by inflammation of hair follicles;
Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria
Cold sores (fever blisters) - Caused by human herpesvirus 1; Blisters itch and
sting
Contact dermatitis - Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic
responses; Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
Impetigo - Caused by bacterial infection; Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions
around mouth/nose
Psoriasis - Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or stress; Red,
epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn, crack, or
sometimes bleed
Burns - Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV
radiation, or chemicals.
Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines: Body is divided into
11 areas for quick estimation; Each area represents about 9 percent of total
body surface area
First-degree burn (superficial burn) - Only epidermis is damaged; Skin is red and
swollen
Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn) - Epidermis and superficial part of
dermis are damaged; Skin is red, painful, and blistered; Regrowth of the epithelium
can occur
Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)-Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned
area is painless; Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)-Extends into deeper tissues (bone,
muscle, tendons); Requires surgery and grafting; May require amputation

Skin cancer - Most common form of cancer in humans; Most important risk factor is
overexposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds

classified two ways:

Benign- means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
Malignant- means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas

Most common types of skin cancer

Basal cell carcinoma - Least malignant and most common type of skin cancer
Squamous cell carcinoma - be induced by UV exposure; stratum spinosum; appear
as scaly, reddened papules that gradually form shallow ulcers.
Malignant melanoma - Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5
percent of skin cancers; Arises from melanocytes

A = Asymmetry - Two sides of pigmented mole do not match

B = Border irregularity - Borders of mole are not smooth
C = Color - Different colors in pigmented area
D = Diameter - Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
E = Evolution - One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving

Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body Membranes:

Vernix caseosa - an oily covering, is apparent at birth
Milia - small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by the third
week
Acne - may appear during adolescence
In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
Skin cancer- is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight
Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are genetically determined; other
factors that may contribute include drugs and emotional stress.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The Skeletal System
▪ Parts of the skeletal system
 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints ▪ Cartilages
 Ligaments

▪ Divided into two divisions

 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton

Functions of Bones
▪ Support of the body
▪ Protection of soft organs
▪ Movement due to attached skeletal muscles
▪ Storage of minerals and fats
▪ Blood cell formation

Bones of the Human Body

▪ The adult skeleton has 206 bones
▪ Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
o Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
o Small needle-like pieces of bone
o Many open spaces

Classification of Bones
▪ Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
▪ Examples: Femur, humerus
▪ Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
▪ Examples: Carpals, tarsals

▪ Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer of spongy bone
▪ Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

▪ Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification categories
▪ Example: Vertebrae and hip

Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

▪ Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of compact bone

▪ Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of spongy bone

Structures of a Long Bone

▪ Periosteum
 Outside covering of the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective tissue membrane

▪ Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to underlying bone

▪ Arteries
 Supply bone cells with nutrients

▪ Articular cartilage
 Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
  Made of hyaline cartilage
 Decreases friction at joint surfaces

▪ Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in adults
 Contains red marrow (for blood cell formation) in infants

Bone Markings
▪ Surface features of bones
▪ Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and ligaments
▪ Passages for nerves and blood vessels
▪ Categories of bone markings

 Projections and processes – grow out from the bone surface

 Depressions or cavities – indentations

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

▪ Osteon (Haversian System)

 A unit of bone

▪ Central (Haversian) canal

 in the center of an osteon

 Opening Carries blood vessels and nerves

▪ Perforating (Volkman’s) canal

 Canal perpendicular to the central canal

 Carries blood vessels and nerves

▪ Lacunae
 Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
 Arranged in concentric rings

▪ Lamellae
 Rings around the central canal
 Sites of lacunae

▪ Canaliculi
  Tiny canals
 Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
 Form a transport system

Changes in the Human Skeleton

▪ In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline cartilage
▪ During development, much of this cartilage is replaced by bone
▪ Cartilage remains in isolated areas

 Bridge of the nose

 Parts of ribs
 Joints

Bone Growth
▪ Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
o Cartilage is broken down
o Bone replaces cartilage

▪ Bones are remodeled and lengthened until growth stops

 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width

Types of Bone Cells

▪ Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells

▪ Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells

▪ Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and release of calcium

▪ Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts and osteoclast

Bone Fractures
▪ A break in a bone
▪ Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates through the skin

▪ Bone fractures are treated by reduction and immobilization

 Realignment of the bone

Repair of Bone Fractures

▪ Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
▪ Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
▪ Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
▪ Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch

The Axial Skeleton

▪ Forms the longitudinal part of the body
▪ Divided into three parts

 Skull
  Vertebral column
 Bony thorax

The Skull
▪ Two sets of bones

 Cranium
 Facial bones

▪Bones are joined by sutures

▪ Only the mandible is attached by a freely movable joint

Paranasal Sinuses
▪ Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal cavity
▪ Functions of paranasal sinuses

 Lighten the skull

 Give resonance and amplification to voice

The Hyoid Bone

▪ The only bone that does not articulate with another bone
▪ Serves as a moveable base for the tongue

The Fetal Skull

▪ The fetal skull is large compared to the infants total body length ▪
Fontanelles – fibrous membranes connecting the cranial bones

 Allow the brain to grow

 Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

The Vertebral Column

▪ Vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs
▪ The spine has a normal curvature
▪ Each vertebrae is given a name according to its location

The Bony Thorax

▪ Forms a cage to protect major organs
▪ Made-up of three parts

 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic vertebrae

The Appendicular Skeleton

▪ Limbs (appendages)
▪ Pectoral girdle
▪ Pelvic girdle

The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

▪ Composed of two bones
 Clavicle – collarbone
 Scapula – shoulder blade

▪ These bones allow the upper limb to have exceptionally free movement

Bones of the Upper Limb

▪ The arm is formed by a single bone
 Humerus

▪ The forearm has two bones

 Ulna
 Radius

▪ The hand

 Carpals – wrist
 Metacarpals – palm
 Phalanges – fingers

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

▪ Hip bones
▪ Composed of three pair of fused bones

 Ilium ▪ Ischium
 Pubic bone
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the pelvis

▪ Protects several organs

 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine

Bones of the Lower Limbs

▪ The thigh has one bone

 Femur – thigh bone

▪ The leg has two bones

  Tibia
 Fibula

▪ The foot
 Tarsus – ankle
 Metatarsals – sole
 Phalanges – toes

Arches of the Foot

▪ Bones of the foot are arranged to form three strong arches
 Two longitudinal
 one transverse

Joints
▪ Articulations of bones
▪ Functions of joints

 Hold bones together

 Allow for mobility

▪ Ways joints are classified

 Functionally
 Structurally

Functional Classification of Joints

▪ Synarthroses – immovable joints
▪ Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable joints
▪ Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

Structural Classification of Joints

▪ Fibrous joints

 Generally immovable

▪ Cartilaginous joints

 Immovable or slightly moveable

▪ Synovial joints

 Freely moveable
Fibrous Joints
▪ Bones united by fibrous tissue
▪ Examples

 Sutures
 Syndesmoses
o Allows more movement than sutures
o Example: distal end of tibia and fibula

Cartilaginous Joints
▪ Bones connected by cartilage
▪ Examples

 Pubic symphysis
 Intervertebral joints

Synovial Joints
▪ Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity
▪ Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

Features of Synovial Joints

▪ Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers the ends of bones
▪ Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous articular capsule
▪ Have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
▪ Ligaments reinforce the joint

Structures Associated with the Synovial Joint

▪ Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs

 Lined with synovial membranes

 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint

▪ Tendon sheath

 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

Inflammatory Conditions Associated with Joints

▪ Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually caused by a blow or friction
▪ Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
▪ Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative diseases of joints

 Over 100 different types

 The most widespread crippling disease in the United States
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
▪ Osteoarthritis

 Most common chronic arthritis

 Probably related to normal aging processes

▪ Rheumatoid arthritis

 An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks the joints

 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain joints
 Often leads to deformitie

▪ Gouty Arthritis
 Inflammation of joints is caused by a deposition of urate crystals from the
blood
 Can usually be controlled with diet

Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal System

▪ At birth, the skull bones are incomplete
▪ Bones are joined by fibrous membranes – fontanelles
▪ Fontanelles are completely replaced with bone within two years after birth

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

- responsible for all types of body movement.
- Skeletal and smooth muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
-Contraction and shortening of muscles are due to the movement of microfilaments
-Prefixes myo- and mys- refer to “muscle”
-Prefix sarco- refers to “flesh”

SKELETAL MUSCLE
– Attached by tendons to bones.
– Large, cigar-shaped, and multinucleate.
– Known as straited muscle.
– Voluntary
– Surrounded by connective tissue.
Endomysium—encloses a single muscle fiber Perimysium
—wraps around a fascicle (bundle) of muscle fibers Epimysium—covers
the entire skeletal muscle; blends into a connective tissue attachment
Tendons—cordlike structures
Aponeuroses—sheetlike structures
Fascia—on the outside of the epimysium
Smooth muscle
- No striations

- Involuntary—no conscious control

- Found mainly in the walls of hollow visceral organs (such as stomach, urinary
bladder, respiratory passages)

- Spindle-shaped fibers that are uninucleate

- Contractions are slow and sustained

Cardiac muscle
- Striations

- Involuntary

- Found only in the walls of the heart

- Uninucleate

- Branching cells joined by gap junctions called

- intercalated discs

- Contracts at a steady rate set by pacemaker

skeletal muscle has three other important roles:

- Maintain posture and body position

- Stabilize joints

- Generate heat

Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle

Sarcolemma—specialized plasma membrane
Myofibrils—long organelles inside muscle cell

a) Light (I) bands

- Contains only thin filaments

- Z disc is a midline interruption

b) Dark (A) bands
- give the muscle its striated (banded) appearance

- Contains the entire length of the thick filaments

- H zone is a lighter central area

- M line is in center of H zone

Sarcomere
- contractile unit of a muscle fiber
- Structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle
- Organization of the sarcomere

a. Thick filaments = myosin filaments

- Composed of the protein myosin

- Contain ATPase enzymes to release energy for muscle

- Projections known as myosin head (cross bridges – when link thick and thin
filaments during contraction)

b. Thin filaments = actin filaments

- Composed of the contractile protein actin

- Actin is anchored to the Z disc

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

- Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
- Surrounds the myofibril
- Stores and releases calcium

Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle Cells

Functional properties of skeletal muscles
Irritability (also called responsiveness)— ability to receive and respond to a
stimulus
Contractility—ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate stimulus is received
Extensibility—ability of muscle cells to be stretched
Elasticity—ability to recoil and resume resting length after stretching

The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential

- Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor neuron (nerve cell) to contract

Motor unit—one motor neuron and all the skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that
neuron

Neuromuscular junction
- Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron and sarcolemma of a
muscle

Neurotransmitter
- Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve impulse in the axon terminal

- Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that stimulates skeletal muscle

Synaptic cleft
- Gap between nerve and muscle filled with interstitial fluid

- Although very close, the nerve and muscle do not make contact

STEP BY STEP
When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal of the motor neuron,
Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium ions enter the axon terminal
Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
- vesicles to release acetylcholine (ACh)
Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to receptors on the
sarcolemma of the muscle cell
Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma becomes temporarily more
permeable to sodium ions (Na+)

- Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell

- More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave
- Establishes an imbalance in which interior has more positive ions
(depolarization), thereby opening more Na+ channels
Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium channels that allow sodium ions to
enter the cell
- An action potential is created
- Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable
- Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the cell to the other

Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down acetylcholine into acetic acid and
choline

- AChE ends muscle contraction

- A single nerve impulse produces only one contraction

Cell returns to its resting state when:

1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and potassium ions back to their
original positions

Events at the Neuromuscular Junction

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament Theory
What causes filaments to slide?

- Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory proteins on thin filaments and expose
myosin-binding sites, allowing the myosin heads on the thick filaments to attach

- Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin filaments to slide toward the center of
the sarcomere

- Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens

- During a contraction, a cross bridge attaches and detaches several times

- ATP provides the energy for the sliding process, which continues as long as
calcium ions are present

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

Graded responses
- Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning it will contract to its fullest
when stimulated adequately

- Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same
interval

- Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses

- Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening

Graded responses can be produced in two ways
- By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation

- By changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time

Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation

- Muscle twitch

- Single, brief, jerky contraction

- Not a normal muscle function

- In most types of muscle activity, nerve impulses are delivered at a rapid rate

- As a result, contractions are “summed” (added) together, and one contraction is

immediately followed by another

- When stimulations become more frequent, muscle contractions get stronger and
smoother

- The muscle now exhibits unfused (incomplete) tetanus

- Fused (complete) tetanus is achieved when the muscle is stimulated so rapidly

that no evidence of relaxation is seen

- Contractions are smooth and sustained

Muscle response to stronger stimuli

- Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers stimulated
- Contraction of more fibers results in greater muscle tension
- When all motor units are active and stimulated, the muscle contraction is as
strong as it can get

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction ATP

- Only energy source that can be used to directly power muscle contraction
- Stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are quickly used up
- After this initial time, other pathways

Three pathways to regenerate ATP

1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate

2. Aerobic pathway
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation must be utilized to produce ATP

Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate (CP)—fastest

- Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy molecule
- After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
- CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP
- CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
- 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule

Aerobic respiration
- Supplies ATP at rest and during light/moderate exercise
- A series of metabolic pathways, called oxidative phosphorylation, use oxygen
and occur in the mitochondria
- Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy (about 32
ATP)
- This is a slower reaction that requires continuous 1delivery of oxygen and
nutrients

Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation

- Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
- Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce about 2 ATP
- Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which causes muscle soreness
- This reaction is not as efficient, but it is fast
- Huge amounts of glucose are needed
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Deficit
- If muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
- Suspected factors that contribute to muscle fatigue include:
o Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
o Oxygen deficit and lactic acid accumulation
o Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
- After exercise, the oxygen deficit is repaid by rapid, deep breathing

Types of Muscle Contractions

Isotonic contractions
- Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions
- The muscle shortens, and movement occurs
- Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling

Isometric contractions
- Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is pitted against an
immovable object
- Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten
- Example: pushing your palms together in front of you

Muscle Tone
- State of continuous partial contractions
- Result of different motor units being stimulated in a systematic way
- Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for action

Effect of Exercise on Muscles

Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance

Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more

flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue

o Makes body metabolism more efficient

o Improves digestion, coordination

- Resistance (isometric) exercise (weight lifting) increases muscle

size and strength
o Individual muscle fibers enlarge
Muscle Movements, Roles, and Names
Types of Body Movements
- Muscles are attached to no fewer than two points

o Origin: attachment to an immovable or less movable bone

o Insertion: attachment to a movable bone

- When the muscle contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin

- Body movement occurs when muscles contract across joints

Types of Body Movements
Flexion - Decreases the angle of the joint
Extension - Opposite of flexion
Rotation - Movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
Abduction - Movement of a limb away from the midline
Adduction - Opposite of abduction; Movement of a limb toward the midline

Circumduction - Combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction

Dorsiflexion - Lifting the foot so that the superior surface approaches the shin
(toward the dorsum)
Plantar flexion - Pointing the toes away from the head
Inversion - Turning sole of foot medially
Eversion - Turning sole of foot laterally
Supination - Forearm rotates laterally so palm faces anteriorly; Radius and ulna are
parallel
Pronation - Forearm rotates medially so palm faces posteriorly; Radius and ulna
cross each other like an X
Opposition - Moving the thumb to touch the tips of other fingers on the same hand

Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body

- Muscles can only pull as they contract—not push
- In general, groups of muscles that produce opposite actions lie on opposite sides
of a joint
Prime mover—muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement
Antagonist—muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover
Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement or reduces undesirable
movements
Fixator—specialized synergists that hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime
mover

Naming Skeletal Muscles

Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria

- By direction of muscle fibers
o Example: rectus (straight)
- By relative size of the muscle
o Example: maximus (largest)
- By location of the muscle
o Example: temporalis (temporal bone)
- By number of origins
o Example: triceps (three heads)
- By location of the muscle’s origin and insertion
o Example: sterno (on the sternum)
- By shape of the muscle
o Example: deltoid (triangular)
- By action of the muscle
o Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)

Developmental Aspects of the Muscular System

- Increasing muscular control reflects the maturation of the nervous system
- Muscle control is achieved in a superior/inferior and proximal/distal direction
- To remain healthy, muscles must be exercised regularly
- Without exercise, muscles atrophy
- With extremely vigorous exercise, muscles hypertrophy
- As we age, muscle mass decreases, and muscles become more sinewy
- Exercise helps retain muscle mass and strength.

The Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System
▪ Sensory input – gathering information
 To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
 Changes = stimuli

▪ Integration
 To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed

▪ Motor output
 A response to integrated stimuli
 The response activates muscles or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

▪ Central nervous system (CNS)
 Brain
  Spinal cord

▪ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Nerve outside the brain and spinal cord

Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System

▪ Sensory (afferent) division
 Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system

▪ Motor (efferent) division

 Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system
 Two subdivisions
o Somatic nervous system = voluntary
o Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (Neuroglia)

▪ Astrocytes
 Abundant, star-shaped cells
 Brace neurons
 Form barrier between capillaries and neurons
 Control the chemical environment of the brain

▪ Microglia
 Spider-like phagocytes
 Dispose of debris

▪ Ependymal cells
 Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
 Circulate cerebrospinal fluid

▪ Oligodendrocytes
 Produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the central nervous system

▪ Satellite cells
 Protect neuron cell bodies

▪ Schwann cells
 Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
▪ Neurons = nerve cells
 Cells specialized to transmit messages
 Major regions of neurons
o Cell body – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
o Processes – fibers that extend from the cell body

Neuron Anatomy
▪ Cell body
 Nissl substance – specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum
 Neurofibrils – intermediate cytoskeleton that maintains cell shape
 Nucleus
 Large nucleolus

▪ Extensions outside the cell body

 Dendrites – conduct impulses toward the cell body
 Axons – conduct impulses away from the cell body

Axons and Nerve Impulses

▪ Axons end in axonal terminals
▪ Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters
▪ Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap

 Synaptic cleft – gap between adjacent neurons

 Synapse – junction between nerves

Nerve Fiber Coverings

▪ Schwann cells – produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like fashion
▪ Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

Neuron Cell Body Location

▪ Most are found in the central nervous system
 Gray matter – cell bodies and unmylenated fibers
 Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within the white matter of the central
nervous system

▪ Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system

Functional Classification of Neurons
▪ Sensory (afferent) neurons
  Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
o Cutaneous sense organs
o Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension

▪ Motor (efferent) neurons

 Carry impulses from the central nervous system

▪ Interneurons (association neurons)

 Found in neural pathways in the central nervous system
 Connect sensory and motor neurons

Structural Classification of Neurons

▪ Multipolar neurons – many extensions from the cell body
▪ Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
▪ Unipolar neurons – have a short single process leaving the cell body

Functional Properties of Neurons

▪ Irritability – ability to respond to stimuli
▪ Conductivity – ability to transmit an impulse
▪ The plasma membrane at rest is polarized

 Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell

Starting a Nerve Impulse

▪ Depolarization – a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane
▪ A deploarized membrane allows sodium (Na+ ) to flow inside the membrane
▪ The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron

The Action Potential

▪ If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated over the entire axon
▪ Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes
the membrane
▪ The sodium-potassium pump restores the original configuration

 This action requires ATP

Nerve Impulse Propagation

▪ The impulse continues to move toward the cell body
▪ Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath

Continuation of the Nerve Impulse between Neurons

▪ Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve

 Neurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s axon terminal

  The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
 An action potential is started in the dendrite

The Reflex Arc

▪ Reflex – rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
▪ Reflex arc – direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector

Types of Reflexes and Regulation

▪ Autonomic reflexes
 Smooth muscle regulation
 Heart and blood pressure regulation
 Regulation of glands
 Digestive system regulation

▪ Somatic reflexes

 Activation of skeletal muscles

Central Nervous System (CNS)

▪ CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube
 The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord
 The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles
o Four chambers within the brain
o Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

Regions of the Brain

▪ Cerebral hemispheres ▪ Diencephalon
▪ Brain stem ▪ Cerebellum

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

▪ Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
▪ Include more than half of the brain mass
▪ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

Lobes of the Cerebrum

▪ Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into lobes
▪ Surface lobes of the cerebrum

 Frontal lobe
 Parietal lobe
 Occipital lobe
 Temporal lobe
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
▪ Somatic sensory area – receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
▪ Primary motor area – sends impulses to skeletal muscles
▪ Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
▪ Cerebral areas involved in special senses

 Gustatory area (taste)

 Visual area
 Auditory area
 Olfactory area

▪ Interpretation areas of the cerebrum

 Speech/language region
 Language comprehension region
 General interpretation area

Layers of the Cerebrum

▪ Gray matter
 Outer layer
 Composed mostly of neuron cell bodies

▪ White matter
 Fiber tracts inside the gray matter
 Example: corpus callosum connects hemispheres

▪ Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter

Diencephalon
▪ Sits on top of the brain stem
▪ Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
▪ Made of three parts

 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Epithalamus

Thalamus
▪ Surrounds the third ventricle
▪ The relay station for sensory impulses
▪ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for localization and
interpretation
Hypothalamus
▪ Under the thalamus
▪ Important autonomic nervous system center

 Helps regulate body temperature

 Controls water balance
 Regulates metabolism

▪ An important part of the limbic system (emotions)

▪ The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus

Epithalamus
▪ Forms the roof of the third ventricle
▪ Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
▪ Includes the choroid plexus – forms cerebrospinal fluid

Brain Stem
▪ Attaches to the spinal cord
▪ Parts of the brain stem

 Midbrain
 Pons
 Medulla oblongata

Midbrain
▪ Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
▪ Has two bulging fiber tracts – cerebral peduncles
▪ Has four rounded protrusions – corpora quadrigemina

 Reflex centers for vision and hearing

Pons
▪ The bulging center part of the brain stem
▪ Mostly composed of fiber tracts
▪ Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

Medulla Oblongata
▪ The lowest part of the brain stem
▪ Merges into the spinal cord
▪ Includes important fiber tracts
▪ Contains important control centers

 Heart rate control

 Blood pressure regulation
 Breathing
  Swallowing
 Vomiting

Reticular Formation
▪ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
▪ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
▪ Reticular activating system plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness

Cerebellum
▪ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
▪ Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Scalp and skin
▪ Skull and vertebral column
▪ Meninges
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid
▪ Blood brain barrier
Meninges
▪ Dura mater

 Double-layered external covering

o Periosteum – attached to surface of the skull
o Meningeal layer – outer covering of the brain
 Folds inward in several areas

▪ Arachnoid layer

 Middle layer
 Web-like

▪ Pia mater

 Internal layer
 Clings to the surface of the brain

Cerebrospinal Fluid
▪ Similar to blood plasma composition
▪ Formed by the choroid plexus
▪ Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
▪ Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord

Blood Brain Barrier

▪ Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
▪ Excludes many potentially harmful substances
▪ Useless against some substances

 Fats and fat soluble molecules

 Respiratory gases
 Alcohol
 Nicotine
 Anesthesia

Traumatic Brain Injuries

▪ Concussion

 Slight brain injury

 No permanent brain damage

▪ Contusion

 Nervous tissue destruction occurs

 Nervous tissue does not regenerate

▪ Cerebral edema

 Swelling from the inflammatory response

 May compress and kill brain tissue

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

▪ Commonly called a stroke
▪ The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
▪ Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
▪ Loss of some functions or death may result

Alzheimer’s Disease
▪ Progressive degenerative brain disease
▪ Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
▪ Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers
within neurons
▪ Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion and ultimately,
hallucinations and death

Spinal Cord
▪ Extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of T12
▪ Below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal nerves)
▪ Enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar regions
Spinal Cord Anatomy
▪ Exterior white mater – conduction tracts
▪ Internal gray matter - mostly cell bodies

 Dorsal (posterior) horns

 Anterior (ventral) horns

▪ Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid

▪ Meninges cover the spinal cord
▪ Nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae

 Dorsal root
o Associated with the dorsal root ganglia – collections of cell bodies
outside the central nervous system
 Ventral root

Peripheral Nervous System

▪ Nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous system
▪ Nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
▪ Neuron fibers are bundled by connective tissue

Structure of a Nerve
▪ Endoneurium surrounds each fiber
▪ Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium
▪ Fascicles are bound together by epineurium

Classification of Nerves
▪ Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers
▪ Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses toward the CNS
▪ Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves
▪ 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
▪ Numbered in order, front to back
▪ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
▪ I Olfactory nerve – sensory for smell
▪ II Optic nerve – sensory for vision
▪ III Oculomotor nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
▪ IV Trochlear – motor fiber to eye muscles
▪ V Trigeminal nerve – sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing muscles
▪ VI Abducens nerve – motor fibers to eye muscles
▪ VII Facial nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the face
▪ VIII Vestibulocochlear nerve – sensory for balance and hearing
▪ IX Glossopharyngeal nerve – sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx
▪ X Vagus nerves – sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, and viscera
▪ XI Accessory nerve – motor fibers to neck and upper back
▪ XII Hypoglossal nerve – motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves
▪ There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
▪ Spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the
spinal cord
▪ Spinal nerves are named for the region from which they arise

Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

▪ Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord

 Dorsal rami – serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
 Ventral rami – forms a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior

Autonomic Nervous System

▪ The involuntary branch of the nervous system
▪ Consists of only motor nerves
▪Divided into two divisions

 Sympathetic division
 Parasympathetic division

Differences Between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

▪ Nerves

 Somatic – one motor neuron

 Autonomic – preganglionic and postganglionic nerves

▪ Effector organs

 Somatic – skeletal muscle

 Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

▪ Nerurotransmitters

 Somatic – always use acetylcholine

 Autominic – use acetylcholine, epinephrine, or norepinephrine

Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

▪ Originates from T1 through L2
▪ Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near the spinal cord)
▪ Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic neuron transmit impulse from
CNS to the effector
▪ Norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters to the effector organs

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

▪ Originates from the brain stem and S1 through S4
▪ Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
▪ Always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter

Autonomic Functioning
▪ Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight”

 Response to unusual stimulus

 Takes over to increase activities
 Remember as the “E” division = exercise, excitement, emergency, and
embarrassment

▪ Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites

 Conserves energy
 Maintains daily necessary body functions
 Remember as the “D” division - digestion, defecation, and diuresis

Development Aspects of the Nervous System

▪ The nervous system is formed during the first month of embryonic development
▪ Any maternal infection can have extremely harmful effects
▪ The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to develop
▪ No more neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues for
several years
▪ The brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult

Special Senses
The Senses
▪ General senses of touch
 Temperature
 Pressure
  Pain

▪ Special senses

 Smell
 Taste
 Sight
 Hearing
 Equilibrium

The Eye and Vision

▪ 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes
▪ Each eye has over a million nerve fibers
▪ Protection for the eye

 Most of the eye is enclosed in a bony orbit

 A cushion of fat surrounds most of the eye

Accessory Structures of the Eye

▪ Eyelids
▪ Eyelashes
▪ Meibomian glands – modified sebacious glands produce an oily secretion to
lubricate the eye
▪ Ciliary glands – modified sweat glands between the eyelashes
▪ Conjunctiva

 Membrane that lines the eyelids

 Connects to the surface of the eye
 Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye

▪ Lacrimal apparatus

 Lacrimal gland – produces lacrimal fluid

 Lacrimal canals – drains lacrimal fluid from eyes

▪ Lacrimal sac – provides passage of lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity

▪ Nasolacrimal duct – empties lacrimal fluid into the nasal cavity

Function of the Lacrimal Apparatus

▪ Properties of lacrimal fluid

 Dilute salt solution (tears)

 Contains antibodies and lysozyme
 ▪Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye
▪Empties into the nasal cavity

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

▪ Muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye
▪ Produce eye movements

Structure of the Eye

▪ The wall is composed of three tunics

 Fibrous tunic – outside layer

 Choroid – middle layer
 Sensory tunic – inside layer

The Fibrous Tunic

▪ Sclera

 White connective tissue layer

 Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”

▪ Cornea

 Transparent, central anterior portion

 Allows for light to pass through
 Repairs itself easily
 The only human tissue that can be transplanted without fear of rejection

Choroid Layer
▪ Blood-rich nutritive tunic
▪ Pigment prevents light from scattering
▪ Modified interiorly into two structures

 Cilliary body – smooth muscle

 Iris
o Pigmented layer that gives eye color
o Pupil – rounded opening in the iris

Sensory Tunic (Retina)

▪ Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)

 Rods
 Cones
▪ Signals pass from photoreceptors via a two-neuron chain

 Bipolar neurons
 Ganglion cells

▪ Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the optic nerve

Neurons of the Retina and Vision

▪ Rods

 Most are found towards the edges of the retina

 Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
 Perception is all in gray tones

▪ Cones

 Allow for detailed color vision

 Densest in the center of the retina
 Fovea centralis – area of the retina with only cones

▪ No photoreceptor cells are at the optic disk, or blind spot

Cone Sensitivity
▪ There are three types of cones
▪ Different cones are sensitive to different wavelengths
▪ Color blindness is the result of lack of one cone type

Lens
▪ Biconvex crystal-like structure
▪ Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body

Internal Eye Chamber Fluids

▪ Aqueous humor

 Watery fluid found in chamber between the lens and cornea

 Similar to blood plasma
 Helps maintain intraocular pressure
 Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
 Reabsorbed into venous blood through the canal of Schlemm

▪ Vitreous humor

 Gel-like substance behind the lens

 Keeps the eye from collapsing
  Lasts a lifetime and is not replaced

Lens Accommodation
▪ Light must be focused to a point on the retina for optimal vision
▪ The eye is set for distance vision (over 20 ft away)
▪ The lens must change shape to focus for closer objects

Visual Pathway
▪ Photoreceptors of the retina
▪ Optic nerve
▪ Optic nerve crosses at the optic chiasma
▪ Optic tracts
▪ Thalamus (axons form optic radiation)
▪ Visual cortex of the occipital lobe

Eye Reflexes
▪ Internal muscles are controlled by the autonomic nervous system

 Bright light causes pupils to constrict through action of radial and ciliary
muscles
 Viewing close objects causes accommodation

▪ External muscles control eye movement to follow objects

▪ Viewing close objects causes convergence (eyes moving medially)

The Ear
▪ Houses two senses

 Hearing
 Equilibrium (balance)

▪Receptors are mechanoreceptors

▪ Different organs house receptors for each sense

Anatomy of the Ear

▪ The ear is divided into three areas

 Outer (external) ear

 Middle ear
 Inner ear
The External Ear
▪ Involved in hearing only
▪ Structures of the external ear

 Pinna (auricle)
 External auditory canal

The External Auditory Canal

▪ Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
▪ Lined with skin
▪ Ceruminous (wax) glands are present
▪ Ends at the tympanic membrane

The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity

▪ Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
▪ Only involved in the sense of hearing

The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity

▪ Two tubes are associated with the inner ear

 The opening from the auditory canal is covered by the tympanic membrane
 The auditory tube connecting the middle ear with the throat
o Allows for equalizing pressure during yawning or swallowing
o This tube is otherwise collapsed

Bones of the Tympanic Cavity

▪ Three bones span the cavity

 Malleus (hammer)
 Incus (anvil)
 Stapes (stirrip)

▪ Vibrations from eardrum move the malleus

▪ These bones transfer sound to the inner ear

Inner Ear or Bony Labyrinth

▪ Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
▪ Filled with perilymph
▪ A maze of bony chambers within the temporal bone
  Cochlea
 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals

Organs of Hearing
▪ Organ of Corti

 Located within the cochlea

 Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
 Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cells
 Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve impulses to auditory
cortex on temporal lobe

Mechanisms of Hearing
▪ Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane
▪ Hair cells are bent by the membrane
▪ An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
▪ Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation

Organs of Equilibrium
▪ Receptor cells are in two structures

 Vestibule
 Semicircular canals

▪ Equilibrium has two functional parts

 Static equilibrium
 Dynamic equilibrium
Static Equilibrium
▪ Maculae – receptors in the vestibule

 Report on the position of the head

 Send information via the vestibular nerve

▪ Anatomy of the maculae

 Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane

 Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells
 Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells

Dynamic Equilibrium
▪ Crista ampullaris – receptors in the semicircular canals

 Tuft of hair cells

 Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair cells

▪ Action of angular head movements

 The cupula stimulates the hair cells

 An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum

Chemical Senses – Taste and Smell

▪ Both senses use chemoreceptors

 Stimulated by chemicals in solution

 Taste has four types of receptors
 Smell can differentiate a large range of chemicals

▪ Both senses complement each other and respond to many of the same stimuli

Olfaction – The Sense of Smell

▪ Olfactory receptors are in the roof of the nasal cavity

 Neurons with long cilia

 Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection

▪ Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory nerve

▪ Interpretation of smells is made in the cortex

The Sense of Taste

▪ Taste buds house the receptor organs
▪ Location of taste buds

 Most are on the tongue

 Soft palate
  Cheeks

The Tongue and Taste

▪ The tongue is covered with projections called papillae

 Filiform papillae – sharp with no taste buds

 Fungifiorm papillae – rounded with taste buds
 Circumvallate papillae – large papillae with taste buds

▪ Taste buds are found on the sides of papillae

Structure of Taste Buds

▪ Gustatory cells are the receptors

 Have gustatory hairs (long microvilli)

 Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva

▪ Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by several cranial nerves because
taste buds are found in different areas

 Facial nerve
 Glossopharyngeal nerve
 Vagus nerve

Taste Sensations
▪ Sweet receptors

 Sugars
 Saccharine
 Some amino acids

▪ Sour receptors

 Acids

▪ Bitter receptors

 Alkaloids

▪ Salty receptors

 Metal ions

Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses

▪ Formed early in embryonic development
▪ Eyes are outgrowths of the brain
▪ All special senses are functional at birth
 The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System
▪ Second messenger system of the body
▪ Uses chemical messages (hormones) that are released into the blood
▪ Hormones control several major processes

 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of homeostasis
 Regulation of metabolism

Hormone Overview
▪ Hormones are produced by specialized cells
▪ Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluids
▪ Blood transfers hormones to target sites
▪ These hormones regulate the activity of other cells

The Chemistry of Hormones

▪ Amino acid-based hormones

 Proteins
 Peptides
 Amines

▪ Steroids – made from cholesterol

▪ Prostaglandins – made from highly active lipids

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

▪ Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or organs)
▪ Target cells must have specific protein receptors
▪ Hormone binding influences the working of the cells

Effects Caused by Hormones

▪ Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state
▪ Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
▪ Activation or inactivation of enzymes
▪ Stimulation of mitosis

Steroid Hormone Action

▪ Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
▪ Enter the nucleus
▪ Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
▪ Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
▪ Activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins

Nonsteroid Hormone Action

▪ Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
▪ Hormone does not enter the cell
▪ Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
▪ Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger molecule
▪ Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response

Control of Hormone Release

▪ Hormone levels in the blood are maintained by negative feedback
▪ A stimulus or low hormone levels in the blood triggers the release of more hormone
▪ Hormone release stops once an appropriate level in the blood is reached

Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine Glands

▪ Endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
▪ Changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate hormone release
▪ Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
▪ Most are under control of the sympathetic nervous system

Pituitary Gland
▪ Size of a grape
▪ Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
▪ Protected by the sphenoid bone
▪ Has two functional lobes

 Anterior pituitary – glandular tissue

 Posterior pituitary – nervous tissue

Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

▪ Six anterior pituitary hormones

 Two affect non-endocrine targets

 Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones)

▪ Characteristics of all anterior pituitary hormones

 Proteins (or peptides)

 Act through second-messenger systems
 Regulated by hormonal stimuli, mostly negative feedback

Growth Hormone (GH)

▪ General metabolic hormone ▪
Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
▪ Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
▪ Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy

Functions of Other Anterior Pituitary Hormones

▪ Prolactin (PRL)

 Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth

 Function in males is unknown

▪ Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

 Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex

▪ Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

 Influences growth and activity of the thyroid

▪ Gonadotropic hormones

 Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads

o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
 Stimulates sperm development in testes

▪ Gonadotropic hormones (continued)

 Luteinizing hormone (LH)

o Triggers ovulation
o Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum
o Stimulates testosterone production in males
 Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)

Pituitary - Hypothalamus Relationship

▪ Release of hormones is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced
by the hypothalamus
▪ Hypothlamus produces two hormones that are transorted to neurosecretory cells of
the posterior pituitary
▪ The poterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland, but does release hormones

Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

▪ Oxytocin
  Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor
 Causes milk ejection

▪ Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

 Can inhibit urine production

 In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood
pressure (vasopressin)

Thyroid Gland
▪ Found at the base of the throat
▪ Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
▪ Produces two hormones

 Thyroid hormone
 Calcitonin

Thyroid Hormone
▪ Major metabolic hormone
▪ Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones

 Thyroxine (T4 ) – secreted by thyroid follicles

 Triiodothyronine (T3 ) – conversion of T4 at target tissues

Calcitonin
▪ Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
▪ Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
▪ Produced by C (parafollicular) cells

Parathyroid Glands
▪ Tiny masses on the posterior of the thyroid
▪ Secrete parathyroid hormone

 Stimulate osterclasts to remove calcium from bone

 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood

Adrenal Glands
▪ Two glands

 Cortex – outer glandular region in three layers

 Medulla – inner neural tissue region

▪ Sits on top of the kidneys

Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
▪ Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)

 Produced in outer adrenal cortex

 Regulate mineral content in blood, water, and electrolyte balance
 Target organ is the kidney
 Production stimulated by renin and aldosterone
 Production inhibited by atrial natriuretic peptide

▪ Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and cortisol)

 Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex

 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Help resist long-term stressors
 Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH

▪ Sex hormones

 Produced in the inner layer of the adrenal cortex

 Androgens (male) and some estrogen (female)

Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

▪ Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)

 Epinephrine
 Norepinephrine

▪ These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress

Pancreatic Islets
▪ The pancreas is a mixed gland
▪ The islets of the pancreas produce hormones

 Insulin – allows glucose to cross plasma membranes into cells from beta
cells
 Glucagon – allows glucose to enter the blood from alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood sugar homeostasis

Pineal Gland
▪ Found on the third ventricle of the brain
▪ Secretes melatonin

 Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles

 May have other as-yet-unsubstantiated functions
Thymus
▪ Located posterior to the sternum
▪ Largest in infants and children
▪ Produces thymosin

 Matures some types of white blood cells

 Important in developing the immune system

Hormones of the Ovaries

▪ Estrogens

 Produced by Graafian follicles or the placenta

 Stimulates the development of secondary female characteristics
 Matures female reproductive organs
 Helps prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Prepares the breasts to produce milk

▪ Progesterone

 Produced by the corpus luteum

 Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
 Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus

Hormones of the Testes

▪ Interstitial cells of testes are hormone-producing
▪ Produce several androgens
▪ Testosterone is the most important androgen

 Responsible for adult male secondary sex characteristics

 Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell production

Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs

▪ Parts of the small intestine
▪ Parts of the stomach
▪ Kidneys
▪ Heart
▪ Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells

Endocrine Function of the Placenta

▪ Produces hormones that maintain the pregnancy
▪ Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
▪ Produces HCG in addition to estrogen, progesterone, and other hormones
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
▪ Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age

 Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the ovaries

 Problems associated with reduced estrogen are common
 Growth hormone production declines with age
 Many endocrine glands decrease output with age

Blood
Blood
▪ The only fluid tissue in the human body
▪ Classified as a connective tissue

 Living cells = formed elements

 Non-living matrix = plasma

Physical Characteristics of Blood

▪ Color range

 Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red

 Oxygen-poor blood is dull red

▪ pH must remain between 7.35–7.45

▪ Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature

Blood Plasma
▪ Composed of approximately 90 percent water
▪ Includes many dissolved substances

 Nutrients
 Salts (metal ions)
 Respiratory gases
 Hormones ▪ Proteins
 Waste products

Plasma Proteins
▪ Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
▪ Clotting proteins – help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
▪ Antibodies – help protect the body from antigens

Formed Elements
▪ Erythrocytes = red blood cells
▪ Leukocytes = white blood cells
▪ Platelets = cell fragments
Characteristics of Formed Elements of the Blood

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

▪ The main function is to carry oxygen

▪ Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
  Biconcave disks
 Essentially bags of hemoglobin
 Anucleate (no nucleus)
 Contain very few organelles

▪ Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1

Hemoglobin
▪ Iron-containing protein
▪ Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
▪ Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
▪ Each erythrocyte has 250 million hemoglobin molecules

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

▪ Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
▪ These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
▪ Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
▪ Can move by ameboid motion
▪ Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues

Leukocyte Levels in the Blood

▪ Normal levels are between 4,000 and 11,000 cells per millimeter
▪ Abnormal leukocyte levels
 Leukocytosis
o Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
o Generally indicates an infection
 Leukopenia
o Abnormally low leukocyte level
o Commonly caused by certain drugs
Types of Leukocytes
▪ Granulocytes

 Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained

 Include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

▪ Agranulocytes

 Lack visible cytoplasmic granules

 Include lymphocytes and monocytes
Granulocytes
▪ Neutrophils

 Multilobed nucleus with fine granules

 Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection

▪ Eosinophils

 Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules

 Found in repsonse to allergies and parasitic worms

▪ Basophils

 Have histamine-containing granules

 Initiate inflammation

Agranulocytes
▪ Lymphocytes

 Nucleus fills most of the cell

 Play an important role in the immune response

▪ Monocytes

 Largest of the white blood cells

 Function as macrophages
 Important in fighting chronic infection

Platelets
▪ Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
▪ Needed for the clotting process
▪ Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3

Hematopoiesis
▪ Blood cell formation
▪ Occurs in red bone marrow
▪ All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblast)
▪ Hemocytoblast differentiation

 Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes

 Myeloid stem cell produces other formed elements

Fate of Erythrocytes
▪ Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
▪ Wear out in 100 to 120 days
▪ When worn out, are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
▪ Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts

Control of Erythrocyte Production

▪ Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)
▪ Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the
blood
▪ Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels

Hemostasis
▪ Stoppage of blood flow
▪ Result of a break in a blood vessel
▪ Hemostasis involves three phases

 Platelet plug formation

 Vascular spasms
 Coagulation

Platelet Plug Formation

▪ Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel
▪ Platelets become “sticky” and cling to fibers
▪ Anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets
▪ Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug

Vascular Spasms
▪ Anchored platelets release serotonin
▪ Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles to spasm
▪ Spasms narrow the blood vessel, decreasing blood loss

Coagulation
▪ Injured tissues release thromboplastin
▪ PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts with thromboplastin, blood protein clotting factors,
and calcium ions to trigger a clotting cascade
▪ Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
▪ Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins into hair-like fibrin
▪ Fibrin forms a meshwork (the basis for a clot)

Blood Clotting
▪ Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
▪ The clot remains as endothelium regenerates
▪ The clot is broken down after tissue repair

Undesirable Clotting
▪ Thrombus
  A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
 Can be deadly in areas like the heart

▪ Embolus

 A thrombus that breaks away and floats freely in the bloodstream

 Can later clog vessels in critical areas such as the brain

Bleeding Disorders
▪ Thrombocytopenia

 Platelet deficiency
 Even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting

▪ Hemophilia

 Hereditary bleeding disorder

 Normal clotting factors are missing

Blood Groups and Transfusions

▪ Large losses of blood have serious consequences

 Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness

 Loss of over 30 percent causes shock, which can be fatal

▪ Transfusions are the only way to replace blood quickly

▪ Transfused blood must be of the same blood group

Human Blood Groups

▪ Blood contains genetically determined proteins
▪ A foreign protein (antigen) may be attacked by the immune system
▪ Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that will cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination)
▪ There are over 30 common red blood cell antigens
▪ The most vigorous transfusion reactions are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens

ABO Blood Groups

▪ Based on the presence or absence of two antigens
 Type A
 Type B
▪ The lack of these antigens is called type O
▪ The presence of both A and B is called type AB
▪ The presence of either A or B is called types A and B, respectively

Rh Blood Groups
▪ Named because of the presence or absence of one of eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D)
▪ Most Americans are Rh+
▪ Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ blood into a body with Rh– blood

Rh Dangers During Pregnancy

▪ Danger is only when the mother is Rh– and the father is Rh+ , and the child inherits
the Rh+ factor
▪ The mismatch of an Rh– mother carrying an Rh+ baby can cause problems for the
unborn child

 The first pregnancy usually proceeds without problems

 The immune system is sensitized after the first pregnancy
 In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune system produces antibodies
to attack the Rh+ blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

Blood Typing
▪ Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and anti-B serum
▪ Coagulation or no coagulation leads to determining blood type
▪ Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in the same manner
▪ Cross matching – testing for agglutination of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum,
and vice versa

Developmental Aspects of Blood

▪ Sites of blood cell formation
 The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of blood cell formation
 Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by the seventh month
▪ Fetal hemoglobin differs from hemoglobin produced after birth
 The Cardiovascular System
The Cardiovascular System
▪ A closed system of the heart and blood vessels

 The heart pumps blood

 Blood vessels allow blood to circulate to all parts of the body

▪ The function of the cardiovascular system is to deliver oxygen and nutrients and to
remove carbon dioxide and other waste products

The Heart
▪ Location

 Thorax between the lungs

 Pointed apex directed toward left hip

▪ About the size of your fist

The Heart: Coverings

▪ Pericardium – a double serous membrane

 Visceral pericardium
 Next to heart
 Parietal pericardium
 Outside layer

▪ Serous fluid fills the space between the layers of pericardium

The Heart: Heart Wall

▪ Three layers

 Epicardium
o Outside layer
o This layer is the parietal pericardium
o Connective tissue layer
 Myocardium
o Middle layer
o Mostly cardiac muscle
 Endocardium
o Inner layer
o Endothelium
The Heart: Chambers
▪ Right and left side act as separate pumps
▪ Four chambers

 Atria
o Receiving chambers
 Right atrium
 Left atrium
 Ventricles
o Discharging chambers
 Right ventricle
 Left ventricle

The Heart: Valves

▪ Allow blood to flow in only one direction
▪ Four valves
 Atrioventricular valves – between atria and ventricles
o Bicuspid valve (left)
o Tricuspid valve (right)
 Semilunar valves between ventricle and artery
o Pulmonary semilunar valve
o Aortic semilunar valve

▪ Valves open as blood is pumped through

▪ Held in place by chordae tendineae (“heart strings”)
▪ Close to prevent backflow

The Heart: Associated Great Vessels

▪ Aorta

 Leaves left ventricle

▪ Pulmonary arteries

 Leave right ventricle

▪ Vena cava

 Enters right atrium

▪ Pulmonary veins (four)

 Enter left atrium

Coronary Circulation
▪ Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium
▪ The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system

 Coronary arteries
 Cardiac veins
 Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary sinus

The Heart: Conduction System

▪ Intrinsic conduction system (nodal system)

 Heart muscle cells contract, without nerve impulses, in a regular, continuous

way

▪ Special tissue sets the pace

 Sinoatrial node
o Pacemaker
 Atrioventricular node
 Atrioventricular bundle
 Bundle branches
 Purkinje fibers

Heart Contractions
▪ Contraction is initiated by the sinoatrial node
▪ Sequential stimulation occurs at other autorhythmic cells
The Heart: Cardiac Cycle
▪ Atria contract simultaneously
▪ Atria relax, then ventricles contract
▪ Systole = contraction
▪ Diastole = relaxation
▪ Cardiac cycle – events of one complete heart beat

 Mid-to-late diastole – blood flows into ventricles

 Ventricular systole – blood pressure builds before ventricle contracts,
pushing out blood
 Early diastole – atria finish re-filling, ventricular pressure is low

The Heart: Cardiac Output

▪ Cardiac output (CO)

 Amount of blood pumped by each side of the heart in one minute

 CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume [SV])

▪ Stroke volume

 Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction

The Heart: Regulation of Heart Rate
▪ Stroke volume usually remains relatively constant

 Starling’s law of the heart – the more that the cardiac muscle is stretched,
the stronger the contraction

▪ Changing heart rate is the most common way to change cardiac output
▪ Increased heart rate

 Sympathetic nervous system

o Crisis
o Low blood pressure
 Hormones
o Epinephrine
o Thyroxine
 Exercise
 Decreased blood volume

▪ Decreased heart rate

 Parasympathetic nervous system

 High blood pressure or blood volume
 Dereased venous return

Blood Vessels: The Vascular System

▪ Taking blood to the tissues and back
▪ Arteries ▪ Arterioles ▪ Capillaries
▪ Venules ▪ Veins

Blood Vessels: Anatomy

▪ Three layers (tunics)

 Tunic intima
o Endothelium
 Tunic media
o Smooth muscle
o Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
 Tunic externa
 Mostly fibrous connective tissue

Differences Between Blood Vessel Types

▪ Walls of arteries are the thickest
▪ Lumens of veins are larger
▪ Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
▪ Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick to allow for exchanges between
blood and tissue

Movement of Blood Through Vessels

▪ Most arterial blood is pumped by the heart
▪ Veins use the milking action of muscles to help move blood

Capillary Beds
▪ Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels

 Vascular shunt – directly connects an arteriole to a venule

▪ True capillaries – exchange vessels

 Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells

 Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into blood

Pulse
▪ Pulse – pressure wave of blood
▪ Monitored at “pressure points” where pulse is easily palpated

Blood Pressure
▪ Measurements by health professionals are made on the pressure in large arteries

 Systolic – pressure at the peak of ventricular contraction

 Diastolic – pressure when ventricles relax

▪ Pressure in blood vessels decreases as the distance away from the heart increases

Blood Pressure: Effects of Factors

▪ Neural factors

 Autonomic nervous system adjustments (sympathetic division)

▪ Renal factors

 Regulation by altering blood volume

 Renin – hormonal control

▪ Temperature

 Heat has a vasodilation effect

 Cold has a vasoconstricting effect

▪ Chemicals

 Various substances can cause increases or decreases

▪ Diet

Variations in Blood Pressure

▪ Human normal range is variable
 Normal
o 140–110 mm Hg systolic
o 80–75 mm Hg diastolic
 Hypotension
o Low systolic (below 110 mm HG)
o Often associated with illness
 Hypertension
o High systolic (above 140 mm HG)
o Can be dangerous if it is chronic

Capillary Exchange
▪ Substances exchanged due to concentration gradients

 Oxygen and nutrients leave the blood

 Carbon dioxide and other wastes leave the cells

Capillary Exchange: Mechanisms

▪ Direct diffusion across plasma membranes
▪ Endocytosis or exocytosis
▪ Some capillaries have gaps (intercellular clefts)

 Plasma membrane not joined by tight junctions

▪ Fenestrations of some capillaries

 Fenestrations = pores

Developmental Aspects of the Cardiovascular System

▪ A simple “tube heart” develops in the embryo and pumps by the fourth week
▪ The heart becomes a four-chambered organ by the end of seven weeks
▪ Few structural changes occur after the seventh week
 The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
The Lymphatic System
▪ Consists of two semi-independent parts
 Lymphatic vessels
 Lymphoid tissues and organs
▪ Lymphatic system functions
 Transport fluids back to the blood
 Play essential roles in body defense and resistance to disease
Lymphatic Characteristics
▪ Lymph – excess tissue fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
▪ Properties of lymphatic vessels
 One way system toward the heart
 No pump
 Lymph moves toward the heart
o Milking action of skeletal muscle
o Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle in vessel walls

Lymphatic Vessels
▪ Lymph Capillaries
 Walls overlap to form flap-like minivalves
 Fluid leaks into lymph capillaries
 Capillaries are anchored to connective tissue by filaments
 Higher pressure on the inside closes minivalves
▪ Lymphatic collecting vessels
 Collects lymph from lymph capillaries
 Carries lymph to and away from lymph nodes
 Returns fluid to circulatory veins near the heart
o Right lymphatic duct
o Thoracic duct
Lymph
 Materials returned to the blood
Water
Blood cells
Proteins
 Harmful materials that enter lymph vessels
 Bacteria
 Viruses
 Cancer cells
 Cell debris

Lymph Nodes
 Filter lymph before it is returned to the blood
 Defense cells within lymph nodes
 Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign substances
 Lymphocytes – provide immune response to antigens

Lymph Node Structure

 Most are kidney-shaped, less than 1 inch long
 Cortex
 Outer part
 Contains follicles – collections of lymphocytes
 Medulla
 Inner part
 Contains phagocytic macrophages
Flow of Lymph Through Nodes
▪ Lymph enters the convex side through afferent lymphatic vessels
▪ Lymph flows through a number of sinuses inside the node
▪ Lymph exits through efferent lymphatic vessels
▪ Fewer efferent than afferent vessels causes flow to be slowed
Other Lymphoid Organs
▪ Several other organs contribute to lymphatic function
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Tonsils
 Peyer’s patches
The Spleen
▪ Located on the left side of the abdomen
▪ Filters blood
▪ Destroys worn out blood cells
▪ Forms blood cells in the fetus
▪ Acts as a blood reservoir
The Thymus
▪ Located low in the throat, overlying the heart
▪ Functions at peak levels only during childhood
▪ Produces hormones (like thymosin) to program lymphocytes
Tonsils
▪ Small masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx
▪ Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign materials
▪ Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with bacteria
Peyer’s Patches
▪ Found in the wall of the small intestine
▪ Resemble tonsils in structure
▪ Capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine
Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT)
▪ Includes:

 Peyer’s patches
 Tonsils
 Other small accumulations of lymphoid tissue
▪ Acts as a sentinal to protect respiratory and digestive tracts
Body Defenses
▪ The body is constantly in contact with bacteria, fungi, and viruses
▪ The body has two defense systems for foreign materials

 Nonspecific defense system

 Specific defense system
▪ Nonspecific defense system

 Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders

 Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
▪ Specific defense system

 Specific defense is required for each type of invader

 Also known as the immune system

Nonspecific Body Defenses

▪ Body surface coverings

 Intact skin
 Mucous membranes
▪Specialized human cells
▪ Chemicals produced by the body
Surface Membrane Barriers – First Line of Defense
▪ The skin

 Physical barrier to foreign materials

 pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
o Sebum is toxic to bacteria
o Vaginal secretions are very acidic
▪ Stomach mucosa

 Secretes hydrochloric acid

 Has protein-digesting enzymes
▪ Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
▪ Mucus traps microorgranism in digestive and respiratory pathways
Defensive Cells
▪ Phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages)

 Engulfs foreign material into a vacuole

 Enzymes from lysosomes digest the material
▪ Natural killer cells

 Can lyse and kill cancer cells

 Can destroy virus- infected cells
Inflammatory Response - Second Line of Defense
▪ Triggered when body tissues are injured
▪ Produces four cardinal signs

 Redness
 Heat
 Swelling
 Pain
▪ Results in a chain of events leading to protection and healing
Functions of the Inflammatory Response
▪ Prevents spread of damaging agents
▪ Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
▪ Sets the stage for repair
Antimicrobial Chemicals
▪ Complement

 A group of at least 20 plasma proteins

 Activated when they encounter and attach to cells (complement
fixation)
 Damage foreign cell surfaces
 Has vasodilators, chemotaxis, and opsonization
▪ Interferon

 Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells

 Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses binding
Fever
▪ Abnormally high body temperature
▪ Hypothalmus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens (secreted by white
blood cells)
▪ High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc from liver and spleen
needed by bacteria
▪ Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
Specific Defense: The Immune System – Third Line of Defense
▪ Antigen specific – recognizes and acts against particular foreign substances
▪ Systemic – not restricted to the initial infection site
▪ Has memory – recognizes and mounts a stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens
Types of Immunity
▪ Humoral immunity

 Antibody-mediated immunity
 Cells produce chemicals for defense
▪ Cellular immunity

 Cell-mediated immunity
 Cells target virus infected cells
Antigens (Nonself)
▪ Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking an
immune response
▪ Examples of common antigens

 Foreign proteins
 Nucleic acids
 Large carbohydrates
 Some lipids
 Pollen grains
 Microorganisms
Self-Antigens
▪ Human cells have many surface proteins
▪ Our immune cells do not attack our own proteins
▪ Our cells in another person’s body can trigger an immune response because
they are foreign

 Restricts donors for transplants

Allergies
▪ Many small molecules (called haptens or incomplete antigens) are not
antigenic, but link up with our own proteins
▪ The immune system may recognize and respond to a protein-hapten
combination
▪ The immune response is harmful rather than protective because it attacks
our own cells

Cells of the Immune System

▪ Lymphocytes

 Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow

 B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone marrow
 T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus

▪ Macrophages

 Arise from monocytes

 Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs

Humoral (Antibody-Mediated) Immune Response

▪ B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific antigen
▪ The binding event activates the lymphocyte to undergo clonal selection
▪ A large number of clones are produced (primary humoral response)
▪ Most B cells become plasma cells

 Produce antibodies to destroy antigens

 Activity lasts for four or five days

▪ Some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary humoral

response)
Secondary Response
▪ Memory cells are long-lived
▪ A second exposure causes a rapid response
▪ The secondary response is stronger and longer lasting

Active Immunity
▪ Your B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies
▪ Active immunity can be naturally or artificially acquired

Passive Immunity
▪ Antibodies are obtained from someone else

 Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus

 Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma globulin

▪ Immunological memory does not occur

▪ Protection provided by “borrowed antibodies”

Monoclonal Antibodies
▪ Antibodies prepared for clinical testing or diagnostic services
▪ Produced from descendents of a single cell line
▪ Examples of uses for monoclonal antibodies

 Diagnosis of pregnancy
 Treatment after exposure to hepatitis and rabies

Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)

▪ Soluble proteins secreted by B cells (plasma cells)
▪ Carried in blood plasma
▪ Capable of binding specifically to an antigen

Antibody Structure
▪ Four amino acid chains linked by disulfide bonds
▪ Two identical amino acid chains are linked to form a heavy chain
▪ The other two identical chains are light chains
▪ Specific antigen-binding sites are present
Antibody Classes
▪ Antibodies of each class have slightly different roles
▪ Five major immunoglobulin classes

 IgM – can fix complement

 IgA – found mainly in mucus
 IgD – important in activation of B cell
 IgG – can cross the placental barrier
 IgE – involved in allergies

Antibody Function
▪ Antibodies inactivate antigens in a number of ways

 Complement fixation
 Neutralization
 Agglutination
 Precipitation

Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune Response

▪ Antigens must be presented by macrophages to an immunocompetent T
cell (antigen presentation)
▪ T cells must recognize nonself and self (double recognition)
▪ After antigen binding, clones form as with B cells, but different classes of
cells are produced

T Cell Clones
▪ Cytotoxic T cells

 Specialize in killing infected cells

 Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)

▪ Helper T cells

 Recruit other cells to fight the invaders

 Interact directly with B cells

▪ Suppressor T cells

 Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B cells

  Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled activity

▪ A few members of each clone are memory cells

Organ Transplants and Rejection

▪ Major types of grafts

 Autografts – tissue transplanted from one site to another on the

same person
 Isografts – tissue grafts from an identical person (identical twin)
 Allografts – tissue taken from an unrelated person
 Xenografts – tissue taken from a different animal species

▪ Autografts and isografts are ideal donors

▪ Xenografts are never successful
▪ Allografts are more successful with a closer tissue match

Disorders of Immunity: Allergies (Hypersensitivity)

▪ Abnormal, vigorous immune responses
▪ Types of allergies

 Immediate hypersensitivity
o Triggered by release of histamine from IgE binding to mast
cells
o Reactions begin within seconds of contact with allergen
o Anaphylactic shock – dangerous, systemic response
▪ Types of allergies (continued)

 Delayed hypersensitivity
o Triggered by the release of lymphokines from activated
helper T cells
o Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after contact with antigen
Disorders of Immunity: Immunodeficiencies
▪ Production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal
▪ May be congenital or acquired
▪ Includes AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Disorders of Immunity: Autoimmune Diseases
▪ The immune system does not distinguish between self and nonself
▪ The body produces antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its
own tissues
▪ Examples of autoimmune diseases
 Multiple sclerosis – white matter of brain and spinal cord are
destroyed
 Myasthenia gravis – impairs communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
 Juvenile diabetes – destroys pancreatic beta cells that produce
insulin
 Rheumatoid arthritis – destroys joints
 Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – affects kidney, heart, lung and
skin
 Glomerulonephritis – impairment of renal function
Self Tolerance Breakdown
▪ Inefficient lymphocyte programming
▪ Appearance of self-proteins in the circulation that have not been exposed to
the immune system
 Eggs
 Sperm
 Eye lens
▪ Cross-reaction of antibodies produced against foreign antigens with self-
antigens
 Rheumatic fever
Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
▪ Except for thymus and spleen, the lymphoid organs are poorly developed
before birth
▪ A newborn has no functioning lymphocytes at birth; only passive immunity
from the mother
▪ If lymphatics are removed or lost, severe edema results, but vessels grow
back in time
 The Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory system
▪ Nose ▪ Pharynx ▪ Larynx
▪ Trachea ▪ Bronchi ▪ Lungs – alveoli

Function of the Respiratory System

▪ Oversees gas exchanges between the blood and external environment
▪ Exchange of gasses takes place within the lungs in the alveoli
▪ Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and humidify the incoming air

The Nose
▪ The only externally visible part of the respiratory system
▪ Air enters the nose through the external nares (nostrils)
▪ The interior of the nose consists of a nasal cavity divided by a nasal septum

Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity

▪ Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on the superior surface
▪ The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa

 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles

▪ Lateral walls have projections called conchae

 Increases surface area

 Increases air turbulence within the nasal cavity

▪ The nasal cavity is separated from the oral cavity by the palate

 Anterior hard palate (bone)

 Posterior soft palate (muscle)

Paranasal Sinuses
▪ Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal cavity

 Frontal bone
 Sphenoid bone
 Ethmoid bone
 Maxillary bone
▪ Function of the sinuses

 Lighten the skull

 Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Produce mucus that drains into the nasal cavity

Pharynx (Throat)
▪ Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
▪ Three regions of the pharynx

 Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal cavity

 Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to larynx

▪ The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are common passageways for air and
food

Structures of the Pharynx

▪ Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
▪ Tonsils of the pharynx

 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the nasopharynx

 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
 Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue

Larynx (Voice Box)

▪ Routes air and food into proper channels
▪ Plays a role in speech
▪ Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic
cartilage (epiglottis)

Structures of the Larynx

▪ Thyroid cartilage

 Largest hyaline cartilage

 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)

▪ Epiglottis
  Superior opening of the larynx
 Routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea

▪ Vocal cords (vocal folds)

 Vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)

▪ Glottis – opening between vocal cords

Trachea (Windpipe)
▪ Connects larynx with bronchi
▪ Lined with ciliated mucosa

 Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air

 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from lungs

▪ Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage

Primary Bronchi
▪ Formed by division of the trachea
▪ Enters the lung at the hilus (medial depression)
▪ Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than left
▪ Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller branches

Lungs
▪ Occupy most of the thoracic cavity

 Apex is near the clavicle (superior portion)

o Base rests on the diaphragm (inferior portion)
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
o Left lung – two lobes
o Right lung – three lobes
Coverings of the Lungs
▪ Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
▪ Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
▪ Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of pleura to allow gliding

Respiratory Tree Divisions

▪ Primary bronchi ▪ Secondary bronchi
▪ Tertiary bronchi ▪ Bronchioli
▪ Terminal bronchiole

Bronchioles
▪ Smallest branches of the bronchi
▪ All but the smallest branches have reinforcing cartilage
▪ Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli

Respiratory Zone
▪ Structures

 Respiratory bronchioli
 Alveolar duct
 Alveoli

▪ Site of gas exchange

Alveoli
▪ Structure of alveoli

 Alveolar duct
 Alveolar sac
 Alveolus

▪ Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in the respiratory membrane

Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood Barrier)

▪ Thin squamous epithelial layer lining alveolar walls
▪ Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of alveoli

Gas Exchange
▪ Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by diffusion

 Oxygen enters the blood

 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli

▪ Macrophages add protection

▪ Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces

Events of Re spiration
▪ Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and out of the lungs
▪ External respiration – gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli
▪ Respiratory gas transport – transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
▪ Internal respiration – gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in
systemic capillaries
Mechanics of Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation)
▪ Completely mechanical process
▪ Depends on volume changes in the thoracic cavity
▪ Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead to the flow of gases
to equalize pressure
▪ Two phases
 Inspiration – flow of air into lung
 Expiration – air leaving lung
Inspiration
▪ Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
▪ The size of the thoracic cavity increases
▪ External air is pulled into the lungs due to an increase in intrapulmonary
volume

Expiration
▪ Largely a passive process which depends on natural lung elasticity
▪ As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the lungs
▪ Forced expiration can occur mostly by contracting internal intercostal
muscles to depress the rib cage

Pressure Differences in the Thoracic Cavity

▪ Normal pressure within the pleural space is always negative (intrapleural
pressure)
▪ Differences in lung and pleural space pressures keep lungs from collapsing

Nonrespiratory Air Movements

▪ Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions
▪ Examples

Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris

▪ Laughing
▪ Crying
▪ Yawn
▪ Hiccup

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

▪ Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with each breath (tidal volume
[TV])
▪ Many factors that affect respiratory capacity

 A person’s size
 Sex
 Age
 Physical condition

▪ Residual volume of air – after exhalation, about 1200 ml of air remains in

the lungs

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

▪ Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

 Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the tidal volume
 Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml

▪ Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

 Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled

 Approximately 1200 ml

▪ Residual volume

 Air remaining in lung after expiration

 About 1200 ml

▪ Vital capacity

 The total amount of exchangeable air

 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
 Dead space volume
 o Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
alveoli
o About 150 ml
▪ Functional volume

 Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone

 Usually about 350 ml

▪ Respiratory capacities are measured with a spirometer

Respiratory Sounds
▪ Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
▪ Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing through trachea and bronchi
▪ Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of air filling alveoli

External Respiration
▪ Oxygen movement into the blood

 The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood

 Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen

▪ Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood

 Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon

dioxide than air in the alveoli
 Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide

▪ Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor

Gas Transport in the Blood

▪ Oxygen transport in the blood

 Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin

[HbO2 ])
 A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma

▪ Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

  Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3 –)
 A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin, but
at different binding sites than those of oxygen

Internal Respiration
▪ Exchange of gases between blood and body cells
▪ An opposite reaction to what occurs in the lungs

 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to blood

 Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue

Neural Regulation of Respiration

▪ Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to the brain by the phrenic and
intercostal nerves
▪ Neural centers that control rate and depth are located in the medulla
▪ The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
▪ Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 respirations per minute
▪ Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due to extra oxygen needs

Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and Depth

▪ Physical factors

 Increased body temperature

 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing

▪ Volition (conscious control)

▪ Emotional factors
▪ Chemical factors

 Carbon dioxide levels

o Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the main regulatory
chemical for respiration
o Increased carbon dioxide increases respiration
o Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata
 Oxygen levels
 o Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected
by chemoreceptors in the aorta and carotid artery
o Information is sent to the medulla oblongata

Respiratory Disorders: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

▪ Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
▪ Major causes of death and disability in the United States
▪ Features of these diseases

 Patients almost always have a history of smoking

 Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes progressively more severe
 Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are common
 Most victimes retain carbon dioxide, are hypoxic and have
respiratory acidosis
 Those infected will ultimately develop respiratory failure

Emphysema
▪ Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers break through
▪ Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
▪ Airways collapse during expiration
▪ Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale
▪ Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently expanded barrel chest
▪ Cyanosis appears late in the disease

Chronic Bronchitis
▪ Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes severely inflamed
▪ Mucus production increases
▪ Pooled mucus impairs ventilation and gas exchange
▪ Risk of lung infection increases
▪ Pneumonia is common
▪ Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early

Lung Cancer
▪ Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer deaths in the United States
▪ Increased incidence associated with smoking
▪ Three common types

 Squamous cell carcinoma

  Adenocarcinoma
 Small cell carcinoma

Sudden Infant Death syndrome (SIDS)

▪ Apparently healthy infant stops breathing and dies during sleep
▪ Some cases are thought to be a problem of the neural respiratory control
center
▪ One third of cases appear to be due to heart rhythm abnormalities

Asthma
▪ Chronic inflamed hypersensitive bronchiole passages
▪ Response to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and wheezing

Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System

▪ Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
▪ Lungs are not fully inflated with air until two weeks after birth
▪ Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface tension is not present until late in
fetal development and may not be present in premature babies
▪ Important birth defects

 Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of thick mucus clogs the respiratory

system
 Cleft palate

Aging Effects
▪ Elasticity of lungs decreases
▪ Vital capacity decreases
▪ Blood oxygen levels decrease
▪ Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decreases
▪ More risks of respiratory tract infection

Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout Life

▪ Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per minute
▪ Infants – 30 respirations per minute
▪ Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
▪ Adults – 12 to 18 respirations per minute
▪ Rate often increases somewhat with old age

The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

The Digestive System and Body Metabolism
▪ Digestion

 Breakdown of ingested food

 Absorption of nutrients into the blood

▪ Metabolism

 Production of cellular energy (ATP)

 Constructive and degradative cellular activities

Organs of the Digestive System

▪ Two main groups

 Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow tube

 Accessory digestive organs

Organs of the Alimentary Canal

▪ Mouth ▪ Pharynx ▪ Esophagus ▪ Stomach
▪ Small intestine ▪ Large intestine ▪ Anus

Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

▪ Lips (labia) – protect the anterior opening
▪ Cheeks – form the lateral walls
▪ Hard palate – forms the anterior roof
▪ Soft palate – forms the posterior roof
▪ Uvula – fleshy projection of the soft palate
▪ Vestibule – space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
▪ Oral cavity – area contained by the teeth
▪ Tongue – attached at hyoid and styloid processes of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum
▪ Tonsils

 Palatine tonsils
 Lingual tonsil
Processes of the Mouth
▪ Mastication (chewing) of food
▪ Mixing masticated food with saliva
▪ Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
▪ Allowing for the sense of taste

Pharynx Anatomy
▪ Nasopharynx – not part of the digestive system
▪ Oropharynx – posterior to oral cavity
▪ Laryngopharynx – below the oropharynx and connected to the esophagus

Pharynx Function
▪ Serves as a passageway for air and food
▪ Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers

 Longitudinal inner layer

 Circular outer layer

▪ Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers

(peristalsis)

Esophagus
▪ Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
▪ Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
▪ Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the
pharynx)

Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

▪ Mucosa

 Innermost layer
 Moist membrane
o Surface epithelium
o Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
o Small smooth muscle layer

▪ Submucosa

 Just beneath the mucosa

  Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and
lymphatics

▪ Muscularis externa – smooth muscle

 Inner circular layer

 Outer longitudinal layer
▪ Serosa

 Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum

 Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
▪ All are part of the autonomic nervous system
▪ Three separate networks of nerve fibers

 Submucosal nerve plexus

 Myenteric nerve plexus
 Subserous plexus
Stomach Anatomy
▪ Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
▪ Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
▪ Regions of the stomach

 Cardiac region – near the heart

 Fundus
 Body
 Phylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
▪ Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter
▪ Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
▪ External regions

 Lesser curvature
 Greater curvature
▪ Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach

 Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the lesser curvature

  Greater omentum – attaches the greater curvature to the posterior
body wall
 Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs
Stomach Functions
▪ Acts as a storage tank for food
▪ Site of food breakdown
▪ Chemical breakdown of protein begins
▪ Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine
Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach
▪ Simple columnar epithelium

 Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky alkaline mucus

 Gastric glands – secrete gastric juice
 Chief cells – produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
 Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
 Endocrine cells – produce gastrin
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
▪ Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa
▪ Glands and specialized cells are in the gastric gland region
Small Intestine
▪ The body’s major digestive organ
▪ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
▪ Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
▪ Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
▪ Duodenum

 Attached to the stomach

 Curves around the head of the pancreas
▪ Jejunum

 Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum

▪ Ileum

 Extends from jejunum to large intestine

Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
▪ Source of enzymes that are mixed with chyme

 Intestinal cells
 Pancreas

▪ Bile enters from the gall bladder

Villi of the Small Intestine

▪ Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
▪ Give the small intestine more surface area

Microvilli of the Small Intestine

▪ Small projections of the plasma membrane
▪ Found on absorptive cells

Structures Involved in Absorption of Nutrients

▪ Absorptive cells
▪ Blood capillaries
▪ Lacteals (specialized lymphatic capillaries)

Folds of the Small Intestine

▪ Called circular folds or plicae circulares
▪ Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
▪ Do not disappear when filled with food
▪ The submucosa has Peyer’s patches (collections of lymphatic tissue)

Large Intestine
▪ Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small intestine
▪ Frames the internal abdomen

Functions of the Large Intestine

▪ Absorption of water
▪ Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces
▪ Does not participate in digestion of food
▪ Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a lubricant
Structures of the Large Intestine
▪ Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine
▪ Appendix

 Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed

(appendicitis)
 Hangs from the cecum

▪ Colon

 Ascending
 Transverse
 Descending
 S-shaped sigmoidal

▪ Rectum
▪ Anus – external body opening

Modifications to the Muscularis Externa in the Large Intestine

▪ Smooth muscle is reduced to three bands (teniae coli)
▪ Muscle bands have some degree of tone
▪ Walls are formed into pocketlike sacs called haustra

Accessory Digestive Organs

▪ Salivary glands
▪ Teeth
▪ Pancreas
▪ Liver
▪ Gall bladder

Salivary Glands
▪ Saliva-producing glands

 Parotid glands – located anterior to ears

 Submandibular glands
 Sublingual gland
Saliva
▪ Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
▪ Helps to form a food bolus
▪ Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
▪ Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Teeth
▪ The role is to masticate (chew) food
▪ Humans have two sets of teeth

 Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth

 20 teeth are fully formed by age two

▪ Permanent teeth

 Replace deciduous teeth beginning between the ages of 6 to 12

 A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth

Classification of Teeth
▪ Incisors ▪ Canines
▪ Premolars ▪ Molars

Regions of a Tooth
▪ Crown – exposed part

 Outer enamel
 Dentin
 Pulp cavity

▪ Neck

 Region in contact with the gum

 Connects crown to root

▪ Root

 Periodontal membrane attached to the bone

 Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves
Pancreas
▪ Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all
categories of food
▪ Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
▪ Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme
▪ Endocrine products of pancreas

 Insulin
 Glucagons
Liver
▪ Largest gland in the body
▪ Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
▪ Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall
by the falciform ligament
▪ Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic duct
Bile
▪ Produced by cells in the liver
▪ Composition

 Bile salts
 Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin)
 Cholesterol
 Phospholipids
 Electrolytes
Gall Bladder
▪ Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
▪ Stores bile from the liver by way of the cystic duct
▪ Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the presence of fatty food
▪ Gallstones can cause blockages
Processes of the Digestive System
▪ Ingestion – getting food into the mouth
▪ Propulsion – moving foods from one region of the digestive system to
another
▪ Peristalsis – alternating waves of contraction
▪ Segmentation – moving materials back and forth to aid in mixing
▪ Mechanical digestion
  Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
 Churning of food in the stomach
 Segmentation in the small intestine

▪ Chemical Digestion

 Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks

 Each major food group uses different enzymes
o Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
o Proteins are broken to amino acids
o Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
▪ Absorption

 End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph

 Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph
capillaries

▪ Defecation

 Elimination of indigestible substances as feces

Control of Digestive Activity

▪ Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic division
▪ Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ walls that trigger
reflexes
▪ Stimuli include:

 Stretch of the organ

 pH of the contents
 Presence of breakdown products

▪ Reflexes include:

 Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions

 Smooth muscle activity

Digestive Activities of the Mouth

▪ Mechanical breakdown
  Food is physically broken down by chewing

▪ Chemical digestion

 Food is mixed with saliva

 Breaking of starch into maltose by salivary amylase

Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus

▪ These organs have no digestive function
▪ Serve as passageways to the stomach

Deglutition (Swallowing)
▪ Buccal phase

 Voluntary
 Occurs in the mouth
 Food is formed into a bolus
 The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue

▪ Pharyngeal-esophageal phase

 Involuntary transport of the bolus

 All passageways except to the stomach are blocked
o Tongue blocks off the mouth
o Soft palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx
o Epiglottis blocks the larynx
 Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
 The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against
it

Food Breakdown in the Stomach

▪ Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors
▪ Presence of food or falling pH causes the release of gastrin
▪ Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce protein-digesting enzymes
▪ Hydrocholoric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic
Necessity of an Extremely Acid Environment in the Stomach
▪ Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
▪ Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms

Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach

▪ Protein digestion enzymes

 Pepsin – an active protein digesting enzyme

 Rennin – works on digesting milk protein

▪ The only absorption that occurs in the stomach is of alcohol and aspirin

▪ The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (30 ml at a time)
▪ The stomach empties in four to six hours

Digestion in the Small Intestine

▪ Enzymes from the brush border

 Break double sugars into simple sugars

 Complete some protein digestion

▪ Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive function

  Help complete digestion of starch (pancreatic amylase)
 Carry out about half of all protein digestion (trypsin, etc.)

▪ Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive function (continued) ▪

 Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)

 Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)

 Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme

Absorption in the Small Intestine

▪ Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestine
▪ End products of digestion

 Most substances are absorbed by active transport through cell

membranes
 Lipids are absorbed by diffusion

▪ Substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein or lymph

Propulsion in the Small Intestine

▪ Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
▪ Segmental movements
  Mix chyme with digestive juices
 Aid in propelling food

Food Breakdown and Absorption in the Large Intestine

▪ No digestive enzymes are produced
▪ Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients

 Produce some vitamin K and B

 Release gases

▪ Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed

▪ Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Propulsion in the Large Intestine

▪ Sluggish peristalsis
▪ Mass movements

 Slow, powerful movements

 Occur three to four times per day

▪ Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex

 Internal anal sphincter is relaxed

 Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal
sphincter

Nutrition
▪ Nutrient – substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
▪ Categories of nutrients

 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Vitamins
 Mineral
 Water
Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
▪ Carbohydrates

 Most are derived from plants

 Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of glycogens from
meats

▪ Lipids

 Saturated fats from animal products

 Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils
 Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products

▪ Proteins

 Complete proteins – contain all essential amino acids

 Most are from animal products
o Legumes and beans also have proteins, but are incomplete

▪ Vitamins

 Most vitamins are used as cofactors and act with enzymes

 Found in all major food groups

▪ Minerals

 Play many roles in the body

 Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables, legumes, milk, and some
meats

Metabolism
▪ Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
▪ Catabolism – substances are broken down to simpler substances
▪ Anabolism – larger molecules are built from smaller ones
▪ Energy is released during catabolism

Carbohydrate Metabolism
▪ The body’s preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
▪ Glucose (blood sugar) is the major breakdown product and fuel to make
ATP
Cellular Respiration
▪ Oxygen-using events take place within the cell to create ATP from ADP
▪ Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide (CO2 )
▪ Hydrogen atoms are combined with oxygen to form water
▪ Energy produced by these reactions adds a phosphorus to ADP to produce
ATP
▪ ATP can be broken down to release energy for cellular use

Metabolic Pathways Involved in Cellular Respiration

▪ Glycolysis – energizes a glucose molecule so that it can be split into two
pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP
▪ Krebs cycle

 Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide and water resulting from cell
respiration
 Yields a small amount of ATP

▪ Electron transport chain

 Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are
delivered to protein carriers
 Hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions and electrons in the
mitochondria
 Electrons give off energy in a series of steps to enable the production
of ATP

Fat Metabolism
▪ Handled mostly by the liver

 Use some fats to make ATP

 Synthesize lipoproteins, thromboplastin, and cholesterol
 Release breakdown products to the blood

▪ Body cells remove fat and cholesterol to build membranes and steroid
hormones
Use of Fats for ATP Synthesis
▪ Fats must first be broken down to acetic acid
▪ Within mitochondria, acetic acid is completely oxidized to produce water,
carbon dioxide, and ATP

Protein Metabolism
▪ Proteins are conserved by body cells because they are used for most cellular
structures
▪ Ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids
▪ Cells remove amino acids to build proteins

 Synthesized proteins are actively transported across cell membranes

▪ Amino acids are used to make ATP only when proteins are overabundant or
there is a shortage of other sources

Production of ATP from Protein

▪ Amine groups are removed from proteins as ammonia
▪ The rest of the protein molecule enters the Krebs cycle in mitochondria
▪ The liver converts harmful ammonia to urea which can be eliminated in
urine

Role of the Liver in Metabolism

▪ Several roles in digestion
▪ Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
▪ Degrades hormones
▪ Produce cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and clotting proteins)
▪ Plays a central role in metabolism

Metabolic Functions of the Liver

▪ Glycogenesis

 Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen

 Glycogen molecules are stored in the liver

▪ Glycogenolysis

 Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from glycogen

▪ Gluconeogenesis

 Glucose is produced from fats and proteins

▪ Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the liver

 Some are oxidized to provide energy for liver cells

 The rest are broken down into simpler compounds and released into
the blood

Cholesterol Metabolism
▪ Functions of cholesterol

 Serves as a structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D

 Is a major building block of plasma membranes

▪ Most cholesterol is produced in the liver and is not from diet

Cholesterol Transport
▪ Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the bloodstream
▪ They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein complexes)

 Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport to body cells

 High-density lilpoproteins (HDLs) transport from body cells to the
liver

Body Energy Balance

▪ Energy intake = total energy output (heat + work + energy storage)

 Energy intake is liberated during food oxidation

 Energy output
o Heat is usually about 60%
o Storage energy is in the form of fat or glycogen

Regulation of Food Intake

▪ Body weight is usually relatively stable

 Energy intake and output remain about equal

▪ Mechanisms that may regulate food intake

 Levels of nutrients in the blood

  Hormones
 Body temperature
 Psychological factors

Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production

▪ Basic metabolic rate (BMR) – amount of heat produced by the body per unit
of time at rest
▪ Factors that influence BMR

 Surface area – small body usually has higher BMR

 Gender – males tend to have higher BMR
 Age – children and adolescents have a higher BMR
 The amount of thyroxine produced is the most important control
factor
o More thyroxine means higher metabolic rate

Total Metabolic Rate (TMR)

▪ Total amount of kilocalories the body must consume to fuel ongoing
activities
▪ TMR increases with an increase in body activity
▪ TMR must equal calories consumed to maintain homeostasis and maintain a
constant weight

Body Temperature Regulation

▪ Most energy is released as foods are oxidized
▪ Most energy escapes as heat
▪ The body has a narrow range of homeostatic temperature

 Must remain between 35.6° to 37.8°C (96° to 100° F)

 The body’s thermostat is in the hypothalamus
o Initiates heat-loss or heat-promoting mechanisms
Heat Promoting Mechanisms
▪ Vasoconstriction of blood vessels

 Blood is rerouted to deeper, more vital body organs

▪ Shivering – contraction of muscles produces heat

Heat Loss Mechanisms
▪ Heat loss from the skin via radiation and evaporation

 Skin blood vessels and capillaries are flushed with warm blood
 Evaporation of perspiration cools the skin

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

▪ The alimentary canal is a continuous tube by the fifth week of development
▪ Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube
▪ The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the placenta
▪ In newborns, feeding must be frequent, peristalsis is inefficient, and
vomiting is common
▪ Teething begins around age six months
▪ Metabolism decreases with old age
▪ Middle age digestive problems

 Ulcers
 Gall bladder problems

▪ Activity of digestive tract in old age

 Fewer digestive juices

 Peristalsis slows
 Diverticulosis and cancer are more common
 The Urinary System
Functions of the Urinary System
▪ Elimination of waste products

 Nitrogenous wastes
 Toxins
 Drugs

▪ Regulate aspects of homeostasis

 Water balance
 Electrolytes
 Acid-base balance in the blood
 Blood pressure
 Red blood cell production
 Activation of vitamin D
Location of the Kidneys
▪ Against the dorsal body wall
▪ At the level of T12 to L3
▪ The right kidney is slightly lower than the left
▪ Attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves at renal hilus
▪ Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland
Coverings of the Kidneys
▪ Renal capsule

 Surrounds each kidney

▪ Adipose capsule

 Surrounds the kidney

 Provides protection to the kidney
 Helps keep the kidney in its correct location

Kidney Structures
▪ Medullary pyramids – triangular regions of tissue in the medulla
▪ Renal columns – extensions of cortex-like material inward
▪ Calyces – cup-shaped structures that funnel urine towards the renal pelvis
Nephrons
▪ The structural and functional units of the kidneys
▪ Responsible for forming urine
▪ Main structures of the nephrons

 Glomerulus
 Renal tubule
▪ Capillaries are covered with podocytes from the renal tubule
▪ The glomerulus sits within a glomerular capsule (the first part of the renal
tubule)
▪ Juxtamedullary nephrons

 Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla

Peritubular Capillaries
▪ Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
▪ Normal, low pressure capillaries
▪ Attached to a venule
▪ Cling close to the renal tubule
▪ Reabsorb (reclaim) some substances from collecting tubes

Filtration
▪ Nonselective passive process
▪ Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced through capillary walls
▪ Blood cells cannot pass out to the capillaries
▪ Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves via the renal tubule
Reabsorption
▪ The peritubular capillaries reabsorb several materials

 Some water
 Glucose
 Amino acids
 Ions

▪ Some reabsorption is passive, most is active

▪ Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule

Materials Not Reabsorbed

▪ Nitrogenous waste products

 Urea
 Uric acid
 Creatinine

▪ Excess water

Secretion – Reabsorption in Reverse

▪ Some materials move from the peritubular capillaries into the renal tubules

 Hydrogen and potassium ions

 Creatinine

▪ Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter

Characteristics of Urine Used for Medical Diagnosis

▪ Colored somewhat yellow due to the pigment urochrome (from the
destruction of hemoglobin) and solutes
▪ Sterile
▪ Slightly aromatic
▪ Normal pH of around 6
▪ Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
Ureters
▪ Slender tubes attaching the kidney to the bladder

 Continuous with the renal pelvis

 Enter the posterior aspect of the bladder

▪ Runs behind the peritoneum

▪ Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport

▪ Trigone – three openings

 Two from the ureters

 One to the urethrea

Urinary Bladder Wall

▪ Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle)
▪ Mucosa made of transitional epithelium
▪ Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
▪ Bladder can expand significantly without increasing internal pressure
Urethra
▪ Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the
body by peristalsis
▪ Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters

 Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary)

 External urethral sphincter (voluntary)
Urethra Gender Differences
▪ Length

 Females – 3–4 cm (1 inch)

 Males – 20 cm (8 inches)
▪ Location

 Females – along wall of the vagina

 Males – through the prostate and penis
▪ Function

 Females – only carries urine

 Males – carries urine and is a passageway for sperm cells
Micturition (Voiding)
▪ Both sphincter muscles must open to allow voiding

 The internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after stretching of the

bladder
 Activation is from an impulse sent to the spinal cord and then back
via the pelvic splanchnic nerves
 The external urethral sphincter must be voluntarily relaxed
Maintaining Water Balance
▪ Normal amount of water in the human body

 Young adult females – 50%

 Young adult males – 60%
 Babies – 75%
 Old age – 45%
▪ Water is necessary for many body functions and levels must be maintained
The Link Between Water and Salt
▪ Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move from one
compartment to another

 Alters blood volume and blood pressure

 Can impair the activity of cells

Maintaining Water Balance

▪ Water intake must equal water output
▪ Sources for water intake

 Ingested foods and fluids

 Water produced from metabolic processes

▪ Sources for water output

 Vaporization out of the lungs

 Lost in perspiration
 Leaves the body in the feces
 Urine production

Maintaining Water Balance

▪ Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
▪ Less urine (concentrated) is produced if large amounts of water are lost
▪ Proper concentrations of various electrolytes must be present
Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Reabsorption
▪ Regulation is primarily by hormones

 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive water loss in urine

 Aldosterone regulates sodium ion content of extracellular fluid ▪
o Triggered by the rennin-angiotensin mechanism
▪ Cells in the kidneys and hypothalamus are active monitors
Maintaining Acid-Base Balance in Blood
▪ Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to maintain homeostasis ▪

 Alkalosis – pH above 7.45

 Acidosis – pH below 7.35
▪ Most ions originate as byproducts of cellular metabolism
▪ Most acid-base balance is maintained by the kidneys
▪ Other acid-base controlling systems

 Blood buffers
 Respiration
Blood Buffers
▪ Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion (H+ )
concentrations

 Bind to H+ when pH drops

 Release H+ when pH rises
▪ Three major chemical buffer systems
 Bicarbonate buffer system
 Phosphate buffer system
 Protein buffer system
The Bicarbonate Buffer System
▪ Mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3 ) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 )
▪ Bicarbonate ions (HCO3 – ) react with strong acids to change them to weak
acids
▪ Carbonic acid dissociates in the presence of a strong base to form a weak
base and water
Respiratory System Controls of Acid-Base Balance
▪ Carbon dioxide in the blood is converted to bicarbonate ion and transported
in the plasma
▪ Increases in hydrogen ion concentration produces more carbonic acid
▪ Excess hydrogen ion can be blown off with the release of carbon dioxide
from the lungs
▪ Respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on changing blood pH
Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance
▪ Excrete bicarbonate ions if needed
▪ Conserve or generate new bicarbonate ions if needed
▪ Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0
Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System
▪ Functional kidneys are developed by the third month
▪ Urinary system of a newborn
 Bladder is small
 Urine cannot be concentrated
▪ Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not start until age 18
months
▪ Urinary infections are the only common problems before old age
Aging and the Urinary System
▪ There is a progressive decline in urinary function
▪ The bladder shrinks with aging
▪ Urinary retention is common in males