SCIENCE

Lesson 1 - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- is a system of sex organs within an organism which work together for the purpose of sexual
reproduction.
- Involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse

Female Reproductive System

● Functions
- To protect and nourish the developing young
- Production and transportation of gametes
- Production of sex hormones.
❖ Ovaries
- Female gonads
- 2 small almond shaped glands located in the abdominal
Cavity, attached to the uterus by ligaments
- Produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone
- Contains thousands of small sacs called follicles
- Each follicle contains an immature egg or ovum
- Responsible for the secondary sex characteristics
-
❖ Fallopian Tubes
- 5 inch in length
- Attached to the upper part of the uterus
Functions
- Move the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
- Cilia and peristalsis keep the ovum moving
- Site of fertilization

❖ Uterus
- Hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ
3 parts
- Fundus – top
- Body – middle
- Cervix – narrow bottom
Functions
- Allows for the development and growth of the fetus
- Contracts during birth to aid in the expulsion of the fetus
- Organ of menstruation
Layers
- If fertilization does not occur, this lining deteriorate,
resulting in menstruation
- Endometrial
-
❖ Vagina
- Muscular tube that connects the cervix to the outside of the body
Functions
- Passageway for menstrual flow
- Receives sperm and semen from the male
- Birth canal during delivery of the infant
- Female organ of copulation
 Male Reproductive System
● Functions
- produce, maintain, and transport sperm and protective fluid (semen)
- discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex
- produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible
for maintaining the male reproductive system
❖ Testes
- Male gonads
- suspended in a sac called the scrotum
- Produce sperm
- located outside the body where the temperature is lower
- produce testosterone, male hormone
- testosterone is responsible for secondary sex characteristics such as
deeper voice, facial hair, larger muscles, and body hair
❖ Epididymis
- Sperm leave the testes and enter the epididymis
- Tightly coiled tube, 20 feet long and located in scrotum
Functions
- Store sperm until it matures
- Produce fluid which becomes part of semen
❖ Vas Deferens
- Receives sperm from the epididymis
- Temporarily stores sperm
Functions
- Extends from the epididymis into the abdominal cavity
- Tube that is cut during a vasectomy, the procedure to produce sterility in males
❖ Seminal Vesicles
- 2 small tubes located behind the bladder
Functions
- Produce a thick, yellow, rich in sugar that nourish the sperm
- This fluid composes a large part of the semen
❖ Ejaculatory Ducts
- 2 short tubes
- Carry sperm and fluids known as semen through the prostate gland into the urethra
❖ Prostate Gland
- Doughnut – shaped that is located below the bladder
- Produces an alkaline secretion that increases sperm motility and neutralizes the acidity of the vagina
- During ejaculation, the prostate gland
● Contracts causing the expulsion of semen
● Closes off the urethra, preventing urine passage through the urethra
❖ Cowper’s Gland
- 2 small glands located below the prostate gland
- Secrete a mucous-like fluid that serves as a lubricant for intercourse and an alkaline fluid to decrease
the acidity of the urine residue in the urethra
❖ Urethra
- Tube that extends from the bladder, through the penis, to the outside of the body
- Carries semen and urine
- 5-7 inches long in male
❖ Penis
- Enlarged structure on the end of the penis – glans penis - is made of spongy, erectile tissue
- The foreskin is removed in a procedure called circumcision - External male reproductive organ
Functions
- When erect, male organ of copulation/intercourse
- Provides for the elimination of urine from the bladder

Lesson 2 - PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

- Proteins make up all living materials

- Proteins are manufactured (made) by the ribosomes

Making a Protein—Transcription
• First Step: Copying of genetic information from DNA to RNA called Transcription
Why?
● proteins are made by the ribosomes—ribosomes are outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm.
● DNA is too large to leave the nucleus (double stranded), but RNA can leave the nucleus (single stranded).
● DNA has the genetic code for the protein that needs to be made.
● Part of DNA temporarily unzips and is used as a template to assemble complementary nucleotides into
messenger RNA (mRNA).
● mRNA continues to copy nucleotides until it reaches the Termination sequence of the gene it is copying.
● mRNA then goes through the pores of the nucleus with the DNA code and attaches to the ribosome.
● A series of three adjacent bases in an mRNA molecule codes for a specific amino acid—called a codon.

Making a Protein—Translation
● Second Step: Decoding of mRNA into a protein is called Translation.
● Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome.

❖ Anticodons
- A triplet of nucleotides in tRNA that is complementary to the codon in mRNA—called an anticodon.
- Each tRNA codes for a different amino acid.
- These amino acids come from the food we eat. Proteins we eat are broken down into individual amino
acids and then simply rearranged into new proteins according to the needs and directions of our DNA.
- mRNA carrying the DNA instructions and tRNA carrying amino acids meet in the ribosomes.
- Amino acids are joined together to make a protein.

DNA
- TA - AT
- CG - GC
RNA
- AU - UA
- GC-CG

Protein Synthesis
DNA - RNA - PROTEIN
Lesson 3 - FEEDBACK MECHANISM

❖ Homeostasis
• A condition in which the internal environment of the body remains relatively constant despite changes in
the external environment.

❖ Homeostatic Control Systems

• In order to maintain homeostasis, control system must be able to
- Detects changes from formal in the internal environment that need to be changed.
- Make appropriate adjustments in order to restore

❖ Homeostatic Control Systems

• Feedforward - term used for responses made in anticipation of a change
• Feedback - refers to responses made after change has been detected
- Types of feedback systems
• Negative
• Positive

❖ Feedback Loops: Types

• Negative feedback loop

- original stimulus reversed
- most feedback systems
- used for conditions that need frequent adjustment
• Positive feedback loop
- original stimulus intensified
- seen during normal childbirth

❖ Feedback mechanisms
• Are used to either maintain or amplify (to increase) chemical systems in the body.
• Note: To determine the type of mechanism you must be able to determine the stimulus and response.

❖ Negative Feedback Loop

• Negative feedback is when the feedback causes the corrective measures to be turned off.
• This returns the system to a normal level.

Negative feedback loop consists of:

• Receptor - structures that monitor a controlled condition and detect changes

• Control center - determines action

• Effector
- receives directions from the control center
- produces a response
 Negative Feedback in the control of body temperature

• As the temperature of the blood increases, it is detected by thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus

• These then send nerve impulses to the heat loss center (this is also in the hypothalamus)
• This then sends signals to the skin (the effector organ)

Positive Feedback
• Positive feedback is when the feedback causes the corrective measures to stay turned on

Examples of Positive Feedback

Practical: Gas Pedal

In the body(the only 3)

• Childbirth
• Breast Feeding
• Blood clotting

Lesson 4 - BIODIVERSITY

❖ Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is the diversity of life forms in an environment.
• Biodiversity is an important indicator of environmental health.
• Both evolution and extinction account for the biodiversity on Earth today.

WHAT ARE THE 3 LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY?

1. Ecosystem Diversity
- The variety of ecosystems within a region.
2. Species Diversity
- The variety of species within an ecosystem.
3. Genetic Diversity
- The variety of genes within a given species.

Every individual organism is distinguished from every other organism by the differences in their genes.

❖ Measures of Species Diversity

• An estimated 10 million species inhabit the Earth today.
How does a scientist measure the species diversity at a local or regional scale?
• Species Richness
• Species Evenness
Species Diversity is dependent on these two factors.

❖ Species Richness
• Species Richness is the number of species in a given area.
• It is used to give an approximate sense of the biodiversity of a particular place.
 ❖ Species Evenness
• If a scientist wanted to know relative proportions of individuals within the different species, then the
scientist would use...species evenness.
• Species even tells whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or whether
all of its species have similar abundances.

❖ "Value" of a Species
Instrumental Value

• The species has worth as an instrument or tool that can be used to accomplish a goal.
• Idea of how much economic benefit a species brings to humans.
• Lumber
• Pharmaceutical drugs

• Intrinsic Value

• The species has worth independent of any benefit it may provide to humans.
Example: The moral value of an animal's life
This value can't be quantified.
❖ Ecosystem Services
- The instrumental value of ecosystems lies in Ecosystem Services.

• Ecosystem Services are the benefits that humans obtain from natural ecosystems.
• Example: Agricultural ecosystem's ability to produce food
• Example: Wetland ecosystem's ability to filter and clean the water that flows through
• Can be assigned monetary values by economists

❖ Genetic Diversity

Review: Genetic Diversity is the variety of genes among individuals of species.

• Genes determine the range of possible traits (physical or behavioral characteristics) an organism can
pass down to its offspring.
• Genotype is the complete set of genes in an individual.
• Genes you possess that code for eye color make up a part of your genotype.
• Phenotype is the actual set of traits expressed in an individual.
•Color of your eyes

What creates Genetic Diversity?

- Mutation

If there is an occasional mistake in the copying process of DNA, then the mistake produces a random
change in the genetic code. This change is a mutation.
 ❖ Evolution
Evolution occurs in three ways.
• Artificial selection
• Natural selection
• Random processes

Artificial Selection
- When humans determine which individuals breed
- Artificial selection is a way humans influence evolution.
- Humans breed plants and animals for desired traits.
Example: Different breeds of domestic dogs were bred from the wolf by humans, Figure 4.5 on page 85.
• Carefully controlled breeding
• All dogs remain a single species. As a result, they can mate with one another and produce
offspring.

Natural Selection.
- Darwin's Theory of Evolution
1. Individuals produce an excess of offspring.
2. Not all offspring can survive.
3. Individuals differ in their traits.
4. Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to offspring.
5. Differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.
- Any combination of traits (adaptations) that improves an individual's fitness.
• Fitness: individual's ability to survive and reproduce
Examples: Adaptations that allow plants to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.
• In the desert → plant's ability store excess water; evolved waxy or hairy leaves that reduce water
loss; large taproots
❖ Random Processes
- Evolution can occur by nonadaptive
processes.
• Mutation
• Genetic Drift
• Bottleneck Effects
• Founder Effects

- Mutations
The larger the population, the more opportunities there will be for mutations to appear within it.

- Genetic Drift
A change in the genetic composition of a population over time as a result of random mating.
 - Bottleneck effect
A reduction in the genetic diversity of a population caused by a reduction in its size.

- Founder effect
Colonizing individuals will give rise to an island population that has a genetic composition very different
from that of the original mainland population.

❖ Species Extinction
• Species that can't adapt to changes or move to more favorable environments will eventually go extinct.

• 99% of the species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct.

• Avg. lifespan of species about 1-10 million years

• A species may go extinct when the change happens so rapidly that the species doesn't have time to
evolve new adaptations.

❖ Levels of Complexity
Scientists study nature at the following levels of complexity.
• The Individual - Natural selection operates at the level of the individual. The individual must survive and
reproduce.
• A Population - A population is composed of all the individuals that belong to the same species and live in
a given area at a particular time.
• A Community - A community incorporates all of the populations of organisms within a given area.
• An Ecosystem - All of Earth's ecosystems are incorporated in the biosphere.
• The Biosphere

❖ Community Ecology
- The study of the following interactions that determine the survival of a species in a habitat.

❖ Competition
- Competition is the struggle of individuals to obtain a limiting resource.
- Limiting resource: a resource a population can't live without, and which occurs in quantities lower
than the population would require to increase in size

❖ Mutualism
- Mutualism benefits two interacting Species by increasing both species' chances of survival and
reproduction.
Example:
Plants and their pollinators (birds, bats, insects)
 ❖ Commensalism
- A type of relationship in which one species benefits but the other is neither harmed nor helped

❖ A Symbiotic Relationship
- A symbiotic relationship is the relationship of two species that live in close association with each
other

❖ Ecosystem Engineers
- An ecosystem engineer: A keystone species that creates or
maintains habitat for other species.
Example:
• Beavers have a critical role in the forest community.

Change that occurs in communities

- Ecological Succession
Replacement of one group of species by another group of species over time.

Patterns of Species Richness

• Species are not distributed evenly on Earth.
• Species are organized into biomes by global climate patterns and into communities whose composition
changes regularly as species interact.
• The number and types of species present within a given region are determined by...
- Colonization of the area by new species
- Formation of new and distinct species due to evolution
- Losses from the area by extinction.
- Importance of these 3 basic processes varies by region but is influenced by latitude, time, habitat size,
and distance from other communities.