Adrenal glands 

Adrenal glands 
• The adrenal glands , also known as  suprarenal glands  
made up of neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of
the kidneys by a fibrous capsule .
• They are a pair of triangular-shaped glands,
• Each about 4 to 6 cm in long and 2 to 3 cm in wide.
• Weighs 4 – 5 g each
• The suprarenal glands are responsible for the release of
hormones that regulate metabolism, immune system
function, and the salt-water balance in the bloodstream.
• They also aid in the body’s response to stress. 
Right adrenal is bounded
• Anteriorly = Liver
• Posterior = Diaphragm
• Superior = Diaphragm
• Inferio-laterally = Right Kidney
• Medially = IVC
Right adrenal vein enters IVC in a posterolateral
position
Posterior view of abdomen
Left adrenal gland is bounded
• Anteriorly = Stomach,
Pancreas (Body),
Splenic Vessels
• Posteriorly = Diaphragm
• Superiorly = Spleen
• Inferiorly = Kidney
• Medially = Aorta
 Gross anatomy
• Each suprarenal gland is composed of two
distinct tissues: The outer cortex of glandular
tissue and an inner medulla of nervous tissue.
• These two major regions are encapsulated by
connective tissue known as the capsule
• Cortex is the largest part of the gland. The
cortex itself is divided into three zones: -
- the zona glomerulosa, (outer zone),
- the zona fasciculata, and (middle zone),
- the zona reticularis. (inner zone).
• Each region secretes its own set of hormones.
• The zona glomerulosa
- Occupy 15% of the cortex
- Immediately beneath the capsule
- columnar or pyramidal cells
- responsible for the production of
mineralocorticoids, - aldosterone,
Function of aldosterone
- Regulates blood pressure and electrolyte
balance.
- Act mainly on the distal kidney tubules,
salivary glands, and sweat glands
- Stimulates reabsorption of sodium and
increase potassium excretion into urine
• The zona fasciculata,
- Occupy 65% of the cortex
- Intermediate zone
- Polyhedral, often binucleated cells with lipid droplets in
their cytoplasm
- Cells are also called spongyocytes due to vacuolization
- Arranged in one or two – cell thick straight cords
- responsible for the production of
glucocorticoids, - cortisol,
- This zone secretes cortisol both at a basal level and as a
response to the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH) from the pituitary gland.
-
Function of cortisol
• Affect the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids
- which increases blood sugar levels via gluconeogenesis,
- Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues
- Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose
tissues
- Stimulation of fat breakdown
• suppresses the immune system,
- Destroying circulating lymphocytes
- Inhibiting mitotic activity
- Controlling secretion of cytokines
• Promotes maturation of lung and production of
surfactant in fetal development
The zona reticularis
- occupy 7% of the cortex
- Innermost layer
- lies between zona fasciculata and medulla
- Smaller cells disposed in irregular cords forming an
anastomosing network
- Presence of lipofuscin pigment granules – large and
numerous
- zona reticularis produces gonadocorticoids mainly
androgens.
- The main androgen produced by this layer is
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
 Function of dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA)
- Weak androgen
- Circulates the blood as a sulfate
- Exerts it actions after being
converted to testosterone
Males: male sexual characteristics
Females: female sex drive
Suprarenal medulla
• The suprarenal medulla is composed of special
cells called chromaffin cells, which are
organized in clusters around blood vessels.
• Contains sympathetic ganglion cells
• The cells in the suprarenal medulla produce
catecholamines - epinephrine (also known as
adrenaline) and norepinephrine.
 Functions of epinephrine
Prepares the body for “fright, fight, or flight”
• Increased heart action
• Vasoconstriction in most systemic arteries
and veins
• Rate and depth of breathing increases
• Force of muscular contraction is increased
 Functions of norepinephrine
• Increases blood pressure
• Stimulates respiration and gastrointestinal
contractions
• Triggering release of glucose
• Suppress neuroinflammation
• Increases blood pressure by increasing
tension of muscles
• Vascular anatomy
The suprarenal glands are among the most extensively
vascularized organs in the body.
Three sources of arteries maintain blood supply to the
suprarenal glands.
The superior suprarenal arteries are multiple small branches
from the inferior phrenic artery,
The middle suprarenal artery is a direct branch from the
abdominal aorta.
An inferior suprarenal artery, sometimes multiple, arises from
the renal artery on each side.
The blood drains through the suprarenal vein to the left renal
vein or directly to the inferior vena cava on the right side.
Thank you
Pineal gland
• Pineal gland, also called conarium, epiphysis
cerebri, pineal organ, or pineal body, 
• The pineal gland develops from the roof of the
diencephalon, a section of the Brain, and is
located behind the third cerebral ventricle in the
brain midline (between the two cerebral
hemispheres).
• Its name is derived from its shape, which is
similar to that of a pinecone (Latin pinea).
• In adult humans it is about 0.8 cm (0.3 inch) long
and weighs approximately 0.1 gram to 0.2 gram.
• Microscopically, the gland is composed of
pinealocytes and supporting cells that are
similar to the  astrocytes of the brain.
• The pineal gland has a rich supply of
adrenergic nerves (neurons sensitive to the
adrenal hormone epinephrine ) that greatly
influence its function.
Pineal Hormones
• secretesmelatonin and its precursor, serotonin,
which are derived chemically from the alkaloid
 substance tryptamine,
• Melatonin   plays a central role in the regulation
of circadian rhythm (the roughly 24-hour cycle
of biological activities associated with natural
periods of light and darkness).
• in darkness norepineprine released by the
sympathetic fibers stimulates synthesis of
melatonin , which may promote sleepiness.
Ovaries & Testes
 Ovaries
• The ovaries are the female gonads.
• The ovaries are paired organs that are found in
the pelvic cavity.
• The ovaries that produce the Female gamete
(Ovum), which is the female reproductive cell
that, if fertilized, will give rise to the embryo.
• The ovaries also produce steroid hormones,
Estrogen ( Estradiol & Estrone) and progestrone
 Estrogen and Progesterone
• Estrogen is a steroid hormone that helps control
and guide female sexual development.
• Estrogen is responsible for stimulating the
development of female secondary sex
characteristics. Such as development of the
breasts, widening of the hips, and the growth of
body hair.
• Estrogen works in harmony with progesterone,
which is a steroid hormone that acts to prepare
the uterus to receive the fertilized egg and
maintain pregnancy.
• The corpus luteum is the structure that
remains after ovulation, which is the discharge
of the egg. This structure produces
progesterone for a few days after ovulation
and then degenerates, unless pregnancy
occurs. If pregnancy does occur, the corpus
luteum remains and continues to produce
progesterone. until the placenta is developed
enough to take over progesterone's
production
• Luteinizing hormone, or LH, is a hormone
from the anterior pituitary that influences the
ovaries and triggers ovulation of the egg,
which leads to the creation of the corpus
luteum. Follicle-stimulating hormone, or FSH,
is a second tropic hormone from the anterior
pituitary that stimulates production of the
egg.
 Testes and Testosterone

• The male gonads are within the scrotal sac.

• The testes are the male gonads.
• The testes are found outside the pelvic cavity
and are contained in the scrotal sac. The
testes are the organs that produce sperm,
which is the male reproductive
 Applied anatomy of endocrine system
Pituitary gland disorder:
1. Pituitary dwarfism:
hypo secretion of hGH – slow bone growth , and
epiphyseal plates close before normal height is reached .
2. Giantism:
hyper secretion of hGH – an abnormal increase in the
length of long bones. The person grows very tall, body
proportion are about to normal
Hyper secretion of hGH in adulthood Is called Acromegaly.
3. Diabetes insipidus ;
common abnormality associated with the
dysfunction of the posterior pituitary gland.
Diabetes : overflow
Insipidus : Tasteless.
This disorder is due to the defect in antidiuretic
hormone receptor or inability to secrete ADH .
Common symptoms of DI is excretion of large
volume of urine results dehydration and thirst.
Persons with DI may die of dehydration if
deprived of water for only a day.
 Thyroid gland disorder
1. Congenital hypothyroidism:
hypo secretion of thyroid hormone i.e present at birth.
cretinism : ( Child hood) this condition causes severe
mental retardation and stunted bone growth.
Myxedema : A hallmark of this disorder is edema
( accumulation of interstitial fluid), that cause the facial
tissue to swell and look puffy. A person with
myxedema has a slow heart rate, low body
temperature, sensitivity to cold, dry hair and skin,
muscular weakness, general lethargy and tendency to
gain weight.
Graves disease:
It is an auto immune disorder , in which the
person produces antibodies ( Mimic the action
of TSH) continually stimulating thyroid gland. A
primary sign is an enlarged thyroid gland.
Peculiar edema behind the eyes called
exopthalmos, which causes eyes to protrude.
Goiter:
is an enlarged thyroid gland. It may be
associated with the hypothyroidism, or
hyperthyroidism or euthyroidism. May be due
inadequate dietary intake.
 Parathyroid gland disorder
• Hypoparathyroidism : too little Parathyroid
hormone – leads to deficiency of blood Ca2+ leades
to muscle depolarization leades to twitches , spasms
and tetany.
• Hyperpara thyroidism : elevateted level of
Parathyroid hormone ( due to tumor) causes
excessive reabsorption of bone matrix by raising of
blood Ca2+ and phosphate causing the bones to
become soft and easily fractured. High calcium level
promote the kidney stones.
 Adrenal gland disorder
• Cushing syndrome
Cushing syndrome is a disorder in which the suprarenal
glands produce too much of the hormone cortisol. In which
the pituitary gland makes too much adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH), which signals the suprarenal glands to
produce cortisol or tumor in the adrenal gland may also
adreanal glands to produce more amount of cortisol . This
disease is characterized by breakdown of muscle protein
and redistribution of body fat results in spindly arms and
legs , moon face , buffalo hump on the back and pendulous
abdomen, flushed facial skin.
 Addison disease
  Addison disease is known as primary suprarenal (adrenal)
insufficiency. It is a disease in which the suprarenal glands do
not produce enough of the hormone cortisol and often the
hormone aldosterone. Addison disease results from damage to
the suprarenal cortex, usually as a result of an autoimmune
disease in which the immune system attacks the gland.
Although less likely, damage to the suprarenal cortex can also
occur from a tumor or through certain infections, such as r 
tuberculosis.  Loss of aldosterone leads to elevated potassium
and decreased sodium in the blood leads to low blood
pressure, dehydration, decreased cardiac output, arrhythmias.
 Pheochromoctomas
• Benign tumor of the chromaffin cells of the
adrenal medulla calledPheochromoctomas.
• causes hyper secretion of epinephrine and
norepinephrine result in proloned verson of
flight and fight response : increased heart
rate, high Bp, high glucose level, elevated
BMR, nervousness , sweating and decreased
GI mobility.
Thank you
Pancreas
 Pancreas
The pancreas is a long, slender organ, most of
which is located posterior to the bottom half of
the stomach. Although it is primarily an
exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive
enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine
function. Its pancreatic islets—clusters of cells
formerly known as the islets of Langerhans—
secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP).
 Cells and Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets
Islets of Langerhans.The islets of Langerhans also
called pancreatic islets, are little masses of
hormone-producing tissue that are scattered
among the enzyme-producing acinar tissue of the
pancreas.
Hormones. Two important hormones produced
by the islet cells are insulin and glucagon.
Islet cells. Islet cells act as fuel sensors, secreting
insulin and glucagon appropriately during fed and
fasting states.
• Beta cells. High levels of glucose in the blood stimulate the release of
insulin from the beta cells of the islets.
• Alpha cells. Glucagon’s release by the alpha cells of the islets is
stimulated by low blood glucose levels.
• Insulin. Insulin acts on just about all the body cells and increases their
ability to transport glucose across their plasma membranes; because
insulin sweeps glucose out of the blood, its effect is said to
be hypoglycemic.
• Glucagon. Glucagon acts as an antagonist of insulin; that is, it helps to
regulate blood glucose levels but in a way opposite that of insulin; its
action is basically hyperglycemic and its primary target organ is the liver,
which it stimulates to break down stored glycogen into glucose and
release the glucose into the blood.
• The adrenal glands are attached superiorly to which organ?
• thyroid
• liver
• kidneys
• hypothalamus
• 2. What secretory cell type is found in the adrenal medulla?
• chromaffin cells
• neuroglial cells
• follicle cells
• oxyphil cells
• 3. Cushing’s disease is a disorder caused by ________.
• abnormally low levels of cortisol
• abnormally high levels of cortisol
• abnormally low levels of aldosterone
• abnormally high levels of aldosterone
• 4. Which of the following responses s not part of the fight-or-flight response?
• pupil dilation
• increased oxygen supply to the lungs
• suppressed digestion
• reduced mental activity
• Critical Thinking Questions
• 1. What are the three regions of the adrenal cortex and what hormones do they produce?
• 2. If innervation to the adrenal medulla were disrupted, what would be the physiological outcome?
• 3. Compare and contrast the short-term and long-term stress response.