SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND RESEARCH SOCIETY (STARS)
S.Y. 2022 – 2023
GRADE 10 - REVIEWER | SUBJECT (3RD QUARTER)
Contents of the Reviewer
a. Human Reproductive System
b. Functions of The Nervous
System
c. The Central Dogma of Molecular
Biology
d. Evolution
e. Biodiversity
Prepared by:
Keishean Alcoy | Grade 10
Diana Audrey Gelacio | Grade 10
Lesson 1: Human Reproductive System
Gametes - sex cells (sperms, egg
cells)
Gonads - main reproductive organ
Sex
- Biological differences between man
and woman
- Identity determined by generic and
anatomical characteristics
Gender
- Culturally or socially constructed
- Acquired Identity
- Spectrum
Male Reproductive System
• Scrotum
• - Optimal temperature for
sperm development is 31
degrees below body temp (91
F)
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• - Consists of skin
• - Dartos muscle is a smooth
muscle beneath scrotum that
contracts when cold
•
• Testes
• - Oval shaped organs
• - 4-6 cm long
• - composed of cone shaped
lobules that contain
seminiferous tubules
• Seminiferous Tubules
• - Sperm production takes place
here (spermatogenesis)
• - 400 million sperms/day
• - Spermatogenesis starts at
puberty
• 4 ducts
• - Epididymis
• - Ductus deferens
• - Ejaculatory duct
• - Urethra
• Epididymis
• - located in the scrotum
between seminiferous tubules
and vas deferens
• - 6 meters long
• - sperm cells continue to
mature in the epididymis
• Ductus (vans) deferens
• - Sperms move to this tube up
to the ampulia of the vas
deferens
• - The walls of this tube is
composed of smooth muscles
• - Emerges from the epididymis
and ascends along the posterior
side of the testes
•
• Urethra
 • - Extends from urinary bladder • - Also known as “oviduct”,
to distal end of penis “uterine tubes”, and “salpinges”
• - Passageway for sperm and • - Two very fine tubes leading
urine from the ovaries into the uterus
• • - Is consisted of infundibular,
• Accessory Glands ampullary, and isthmic
• •
• Seminal Vesicle • Fimbria
• - 60% of semen • - A fringe of tissue near the
ovary leading to the fallopian
• Prostate Gland tubes
• - Supports sperm • - When ovulation occurs, the
• - Surrounds prostatic urethra sex hormones activate the
• - 30% of semen fimbria, causing it to hit the
ovary in a gentle sweeping
Cowper's Gland motion
• - 10% of semen •
• Ovary
• - Main reproductive organ of a
• Penis female
• - Male organ of copulation and • - Females normally have 2
is composed of erectile tissues ovaries
• - Functions in the transfer of • 2 Major functions
sperm cell • - egg cell production (exocrine
• - Accessory organ function)
• - secreting hormones
(endocrine function)
•
• Exocrine - duct/tube (producing
egg)
• Endocrine - ductless/tubeless
(secreting hormones)
•
• Uterus (Womb)
• - Its main function is to accept
a fertilized ovum
• - Ovum becomes implanted into
the endometrium and derives
nourishment from blood levels
Female Reproductive System • - The now fertilized ovum
becomes an embryo and
develops into a fetus and
• Colon gestates until child birth
• - It removes waste material •
from feces • Cervix
• • - Opening from the vagina into
• Fallopian Tubes the womb

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 • - Allows menstrual blood to exit - Female sexual organ
and let sperm in - Functions solely to induce sexual
• pleasure
• Bladder - knob-like portion located near the
• - It is a pouch or flexible anterion junction of the labia minora
enclosure with water proof or above opening of vagina
gas proof walls
• Mammary Gland
• Urethra - Organs of milk production
• - 1-1.5 inches long (2.5-4 cm - Located in breasts
long) - Modified sweat glands
• - opens in the vulva between - Each breast both male and female
the clitoris and the vaginal has a raised nipple surrounded by
opening circular pigmented areola
• - Each breast consists of 15-20
• Vulva glandular lobes
• - External genital organs of a *oxytocin - triggers lobules to produce
female are collectively known as milk
vulva
• Consists of:
• - Labia Minora - Opening of
Lesson 2: Functions of The
Urethra
• - Labia Majora - Opening of Nervous System
Vagina
• - Clitoris 1. Neurons
• Functional unit of the
nervous system
• Transmit signal from one
location to another
Structure:
> Large body cell (
consists nucleus )
> Processes that conduct
signals
• Dendrites
(receives)
• Axons (sends)

2. Glia
• Supporting cells
Vagina • Protect and insulate
- Provides the route in delivering the neurons
fetus from the uterus • Provide Structure
- During birth, referred to as the birth
canal Organization of Neuron
• 3 Types:
Clitoris

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 • Sensory
• Interneuron (brain)
• Motor neuron (muscles)

* Neural circuits form from any

combination of two or more of these
• Convergent (many to one)
• Divergent (one to many)
• Reverberating (circular)

Electrical conduction of information

• Membrane Potential
- difference of charges across
the plasma membrane
• Resting Potential
- resting are cells (-) inside and
(+) outside
- Na+ on the outside, K+ on the
inside
• Action Potential
- rapid reversal in charges
across the plasma membrane
- caused by the exchange of
ions across the membrane of
the neuron
- ( -55mv) All or none
* Saltatory Conduction
• Faster way
• Depends on myelin
sheaths
• Saves energy
• The Central Dogma involves
three major players, namely
DNA, RNA, and proteins.
• It involves three processes,
namely DNA replication,
transcription, and translation
through protein synthesis.
• It forms the basis of storage,
transmission, and expression of
hereditary information.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
replication
• Is a part of DNA Synthesis
• Is the process of duplication of
a new Dna molecule with the
same base sequence as the
original DNA molecule.

Lesson 3: The Central Dogma

of Molecular Biology

• First produced by Francis Crick

(1958)
• He said that the sequence
involved in the expression of
the hereditary characters is :
DNA to RNA to Protein

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• It is the SEMICONSERVATIVE
or the 2 old strands will serve
as the template for the
formation of 2 new strands.
• It is SEMIDISCONTINOUS or
the new strands formed are
attached by fragments (Ozaki
fragments).

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 RNA Translation
RNA transcription
• It is the process of translating
• It is the process by which
RNA message (from mRNA) into
genetic information from DNA is
proteins with the help of
transferred into RNA. DNA
transfer RNA (tRNA).
sequence is enzymatically
• THis uses an mRNA sequence
copied by messenger RNA
as template to guide the
(mRNA) to produce a
synthesis of a chain of amino
complementary nucleotide
acids that forms proteins.
transfer RNA (tRNA) strand.
• Translation occurs in thee
• One significant difference
cytoplasm where the ribosomes
between RNA and DNA
are located.
sequence is the presence of
Uracil in RNA instead of the
RNA translation
Thymine of DNA.
1. Initiation- A ribosome attaches
to mRNA and starts to code at
the Fmet codon (START codon:
AU, GUG, or UUG)
2. Elongation- tRNA brings the
corresponding amino acid to

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 each codon as the ribosome
moves down the mRNA strand.
3. Termination- Reading of the
final mRNA codon (STOP codon:
UAA, UAG, UGA), which ends
the synthesis of the peptide
chain and releases it.
The Genetic code
• Specifically, the code defines a
mapping between tri-nucleotide
sequences called codons and
amino acids.
• Every triplet of nucleotides in
nucleic acid sequences specifies
a single amino acid.
Protein Synthesis
• Protein synthesis is the process
by which cells build proteins.
• Proteins are large organic
compounds made of amino
acids arranged in a linear chain
joined together by peptide
bonds.
Function of Protein
• Act as t=enzymes that catalyze
biochemical reactions and are
vital to metabolism
• Structural or mechanical
functions, such as actin and
myosin in muscle and the
proteins in the cytoskeleton
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• Cell signalling, immune
responses, cell adhesion, and
the cell cycle
• Animal’s diets, since animals
cannot synthesize all the amino
acids they need and must
obtain essential amino acids
from food.
What could happen when things
go wrong?
Mutation
• is a permanent change in the
DNA sequence of genes.
Mutations in a gene’s DNA
sequence can alter the amino
acid sequence of the protein
encoded by the gene.
• Most mutations are harmless.
These are called silent
mutations. However, when
mutations affect the
composition of genethey can
cause illness or even death.
• Usually due to mistakes that are
made when cells copy their DNA
before dividing and that are not
detected by the cell’s repair
mechanisms.
• Other mutations may be caused
by outside mutagenic agents
such as ultraviolet rays and
other forms of radiation,
chemicals, toxins, and drugs.

• Only mutations that happen in
germ cells (egg or sperm cells)
are passed from parent to
offspring.
• In this case, the mutation will
be in every cell of the offspring
There are several types of genetic
mutations that can occur, including:
• Deletion: A deletion mutation
occurs when one or more
nucleotides are lost from the
DNA sequence. This can result
in the loss of genetic
information and can lead to a
variety of disorders.
• Insertion: An insertion mutation
occurs when one or more
nucleotides are added to the
DNA sequence. This can also
result in the loss of genetic
information and can lead to
genetic disorders.
• Substitution: A substitution
mutation occurs when one
nucleotide is replaced by
another in the DNA sequence.
This can result in the production
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of a different amino acid during
protein synthesis, which can
affect protein function.
• Frameshift: A frameshift
mutation occurs when the
addition or deletion of
nucleotides changes the reading
frame of the genetic code. This
can alter the amino acid
sequence of the protein and can
lead to a nonfunctional or
partially functional protein.
• Duplication: A duplication
mutation occurs when a
segment of DNA is repeated,
resulting in extra copies of
genetic information. This can
lead to a variety of genetic
disorders, depending on the
location and size of the
duplication.
• Inversion: An inversion
mutation occurs when a
segment of DNA is reversed in
orientation. This can lead to
changes in gene expression and
can cause genetic disorders.
Lesson 4: Evolution
• Natural selection - organisms
that are better adapted to an
environment are more likely to
survive and reproduce than
organisms that are less well
adapted.
• Overproduction - most
species produce far more
offspring than will / can survive

Competition - since food and
resources are limited, the offspring
have to compete to survive. Darwin
called it "Struggle for existence"
Variation- Members within species
exhibit individual differences — these
differences must be inheritable.
Natural selection - Won't work in a
population of clones! Remember that a
key to a variation is sexual
reproduction
Survival to reproduce - Only those
individuals that are better suited to
the environment will survive and
reproduce. ("Survival of the fittest'')
Fit individuals pass on to a portion of
their offspring the advantageous
characteristics.
Continental Drift
Fossil records show that when the
continents were connected animals
walked across, When the continents
separated, the animals were
separated.
Mutations - Some species are more
susceptible to mutations. Some
mutations allow the animal to survive:
other mutations do not allow the
animal to survive. The mutations that
do not decrease the chance of survival
remain. (some are good, some are
bad)
Type of evidences
Direct evidence: Something that can
be directly observed or seen.
Fossils: the remains or impressions
left by an animal or by plants
preserved in the earth crust.
Indirect evidence: cannot be
observed or does not involve actual
observation of evolution but for which
we can infer that evolution has taken
place. Examples: (based on many
scientists) genetics,comparative
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anatomy, embryology, and
biogeography.
(Direct) Fossils - is a preserved
remnant or trace of a once-living
thing.
TYPES OF FOSSILS
• Imprints
• Molds and Casts
• Petrified fossils
• Trace fossils
• Preservation of Entire Organism
.
What are the modes of fossil
preservation?
Altered Permineralization
(Petrification) - pores in tissue are
filled by minerals
Replacement - replacement of tissue
with minerals
Altered Carbonization - tissue
material is decomposed or reduced to
a film of carbon.
TYPES OF FOSSILS
Imprints (Carbonization process) -
formed when soft, thin body
structures such as feathers and
leaves, leaves impressions in soft
sediments such as mud. When mud
hardens into rock, the imprints are
then preserved as fossils.
Mold and Casts - Formed when an
organism is buried into a sediment
that hardens into rock.
*Molds - are formed as empty spaces
left in a rock when the soft part of an
organism decay and hard parts are
dissolved by chemicals. The mold
takes the same shape as the
organism.
*Cast- also known as filled-in
molds,are formed when the molds are
filled in with another material forming
a cast that has the same shape as the
original organism.

Petrified fossils - formed when
minerals in the mud and sand replace
the hard parts of the organism, such
as when bones were buried under a
layer of sediment (petrification).
• Formed when water dissolves
away and replaces animal or
plant material. (Replacement -
produces an exact copy of the
original plant or animal)
Trace Fossils - Marks or evidence of
animal activities. Example: track,
footprints. trails , and burrows. Worms
that have soft bodies leave behind its
burrows.
Preservation of the entire
organism - It is quite rare to
excavate the preserved whole body or
complete section of an organism. The
procedure below shows how the decay
of these organisms was stopped
completely so they could be
preserved.
OTHER TYPE OF FOSSILS
Amber - Formed as a hard substance
when the resin or sap from evergreen
trees hardens. When the flies or other
insects are trapped in the sticky resin,
they get preserved perfectly as the
resin hardens into amber, producing a
transparent covering.
Freezing -Preserve organisms
through freezing. Example: freezing
foods inside the freezer to prolong its
freshness.
FOSSIL AGE :
*Paleontologists can determine the
age of fossils by taking note of the
characteristics of layers of the
sedimentary rocks in which the fossils
are found.They can also compare
them with other fossils found
embedded in the same layer but in
different places.
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TECHNIQUES USED BY
SCIENTIST
Law of Superposition : The law of
superposition is a basic principle of
stratigraphy, which is the study of
rock layers and the sequence of
events that created them. According
to this law, in an undisturbed
sequence of sedimentary rocks, the
oldest rocks are at the bottom and the
youngest rocks are at the top. This is
because each layer of rock is
deposited on top of the previous layer,
creating a record of the geological
history of the area.
INDIRECT EVIDENCES (not seen
directly)
• Comparing the anatomy and
the development of organisms
reveals a unity of plan among
those that are closely related.
The more body structures that
two species have in common,
the more closely they are
related. It supports the idea of
“descent from a common
ancestor”.
• Can be divided into 3 major
evidences namely :
Anatomical, Embryological,
and Biochemical evidences
Homologous structure - similar
structures in different species.
Homology seems to indicate descent
from common ancestors. The limb
skeletons of vertebrates are
homologous structures. Diversity of
type, unity of pattern
Analogous structures - are
structures which are different in
appearance but have the same
function. Analogy does not indicate
common ancestry. Examples of
analogous structures are the legs of
insects and mammals, and wings of
butterflies and birds.
Vestigial Structures - are structures
that previously have functions but
nowadays, reduces or no function
anymore yet it still exists in the
organism.
Vestigial structures in human:
Note: Most of these organs are
now found doing their function/s
Embryology - Every organism that
has a backbone came from one
ancestor.
*Embryology is the study of the
development of organisms from the
time of fertilization to the time of birth
or hatching. It is a branch of biology
that focuses on the growth and
differentiation of cells, tissues, and
organs during embryonic
development. Embryology is an
important field of study for
understanding the evolution of
different species, as well as the
development of diseases and
abnormalities in humans and animals.
It involves the use of various
techniques such as microscopy,
genetics, and molecular biology to
examine and understand the complex
processes of embryonic development.
Comparative Embryology:
Comparative embryology is the study
of the similarities and differences in
the early stages of development of
different organisms. It is a branch of
comparative anatomy that focuses on
the study of embryos across species.
• By comparing the embryos of
different organisms, scientists
can identify similarities and
differences in their structures
and developmental processes,
which can shed light on their
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evolutionary history and
relationships.
• One famous example of
comparative embryology is the
study of vertebrate embryos.
Vertebrate embryos, from fish
to humans, go through similar
developmental stages, including
the formation of a notochord,
neural tube, and pharyngeal
arches. These similarities
suggest that these organisms
share a common ancestry.
• During the mid- 1800s this was
referred to as the biogenetic
law by German biologist Ernest
Haeckel. In fact Haeckel started
this as " Ontogeny
recapitulates Phylogeny" or
the individual will pass through
the evolutionary stages of its
ancestors.
"Early events of embryonic
development retain current
clues to distant evolutionary
events". So developing embryos
may contain clues to primitive
traits possessed by our
ancestors.
Biochemistry Evidence:
Biochemical molecules provide a
wealth of evidence for understanding
the evolutionary history and
relationships between different
organisms. Here are a few examples:
• DNA sequencing: Comparing
the DNA sequences of different
organisms can reveal their
evolutionary relationships. The
more similar their DNA
 sequences are, the more closely
related they are likely to be.
• Amino acid sequences: Proteins
are made up of long chains of
amino acids. By comparing the
amino acid sequences of
proteins in different organisms,
scientists can determine how
closely related they are.
• Fossil evidence: Fossils can
provide clues about the
biochemical molecules of extinct
organisms. For example, the
discovery of fossilized bones or
teeth can allow scientists to
extract DNA or protein
sequences, which can help
determine the evolutionary
relationships between extinct
and living species.
• Enzyme activity: Enzymes are
proteins that catalyze
biochemical reactions. By
comparing the activity of
enzymes in different organisms,
scientists can determine how
they have evolved and adapted
to different environments.
Lesson 5: Biodiversity
Re Biodiversity - is a measure of
how many different species live in an
ecosystem.
High vs. Low Biodiversity
Ecosystems with high biodiversity
have many different species of
organisms.
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Ecosystems with low biodiversity do
not have many different species of
organisms.
• Metabolism: Biochemical
pathways involved in
metabolism can also provide
evidence for evolutionary
relationships between
organisms. For example,
similarities in the pathways for
energy production or nutrient
metabolism can suggest
common ancestry or shared
evolutionary history.
Different Categories of the Value of
Species
• Direct Economic Value
• Species are sources of
the basic needs of human
• Indirect Economic Value
• Benefits produced by the
species without using
them
• Aesthetic Value
• Provides visual
enjoyment