THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

• Gonads—primary sex organs

– Testes in males

– Ovaries in females

• Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and

secrete hormones

– Sperm—male gametes

– Ova (eggs)—female gametes

• Remaining structures are accessory

reproductive organs

• Reproductive systems

– Produce offspring via gametes

– Sperm and egg fuse to form a

zygote

– Female uterus houses the

embryo, and later the fetus,
until birth

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

• Testes

• Duct system

– Epididymis

– Ductus (vas) deferens

– Urethra

• Accessory organs
TESTES
– Seminal glands (vesicles)
• Each testis is connected to the trunk via
– Prostate the spermatic cord, which houses:
– Bulbourethral glands – Blood vessels
• External genitalia – Nerves
– Penis – Ductus deferens
– Scrotum • Coverings of the testes
 – Tunica albuginea—capsule that DUCT SYSTEM
surrounds each testis
• The duct system transports sperm from
– Septa—extensions of the the body and includes:
capsule that extend into the
– Epididymis
testis and divide it into lobules
– Ductus deferens

– Urethra

• Epididymis

– Highly convoluted tube 6

meters (20 feet) long

– Found along the posterior

lateral side of the testis

– First part of the male duct

system

– Temporary storage site for

immature sperm

– Sperm mature as they journey

through the epididymis

– During ejaculation, sperm are

propelled to the ductus
deferens

• Ductus (vas) deferens

– Runs from the epididymis via

the spermatic cord through the
inguinal canal and arches over
• Each lobule contains one to four
the urinary bladder
seminiferous tubules
• Ampulla—end of the
– Tightly coiled structures
ductus deferens, which
– Function as sperm-forming empties into the
factories ejaculatory duct

– Empty sperm into the rete testis • Ejaculatory duct—

passes through the
• Sperm travels from the rete testis to the prostate to merge with
epididymis the urethra
• Interstitial cells in the seminiferous – Moves sperm by peristalsis into
tubules produce androgens such as the urethra
testosterone
• Ductus (vas) deferens
– Ejaculation—smooth muscle in
the walls of the ductus deferens
create peristaltic waves to
squeeze sperm forward
– Vasectomy—cutting of the
ductus deferens prevents
transportation of sperm (form
of birth control)
• Promotes sterility
• Male retains secondary
sex characteristics
• Urethra
– Extends from the base of the
urinary bladder to the tip of the
penis
– Carries both urine and sperm
– Sperm enters from the
ejaculatory duct
Urethra regions
1. Prostatic urethra—surrounded
by prostate gland
2. Membranous urethra—
prostatic urethra to penis
3. Spongy (penile) urethra—runs
the length of the penis to the
external urethral orifice
2. Ejaculation causes the internal urethra
sphincter to close
1. Prevents urine from passing
into the urethra
2. Prevents sperm from entering
the urinary bladder
Accessory Glands and Semen
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate
• Bulbourethral glands
• Seminal vesicles
• Located at the base of the
bladder
• Produce a thick, yellowish
secretion (60% of semen) that
contains:
• Fructose (sugar)
• Vitamin C
• Prostaglandins
• Other substances that
nourish and activate
sperm
• Duct of each seminal vesicle
joins that of the ductus
deferens on each side to form
the ejaculatory duct
• Prostate
• Encircles the upper (prostatic)
part of the urethra
• Secretes a milky fluid
• Helps to activate sperm
• Fluid enters the urethra
through several small
ducts
• Bulbourethral glands
• Pea-sized glands inferior to the
prostate
• Produce a thick, clear mucus
 • Mucus cleanses the
spongy (penile) urethra
of acidic urine prior to
ejaculation
• Mucus serves as a
lubricant during sexual
intercourse
• Semen
• Milky white mixture of sperm
and accessory gland secretions
• Components of accessory gland
secretions
• Liquid portion acts as a
transport medium to
dilute sperm
• Sperm are streamlined
cellular “tadpoles”
• Fructose provides
energy for sperm cells
• Alkalinity of semen
helps neutralize the
acidic environment of
vagina
• Semen inhibits bacteria
External Genitalia
• Scrotum
• Penis
• Scrotum
• Divided sac of skin outside the
abdomen that houses the testes
• Viable sperm cannot be
produced at normal body
Spermatogenesis
temperature
• Maintains testes at 3 degree
Celsius lower than normal body
temp
• Penis
• Male organ of copulation that
delivers sperm into the female
reproductive tract
• Regions of the penis
• Shaft
• Glans penis (enlarged
tip)
• Prepuce (foreskin)
• Folded cuff of
skin around
proximal end
• Often removed
by circumcision
• Penis
• Internally there are three areas
of spongy erectile tissue around
the urethra
• Erections occur when this
erectile tissue fills with blood
during sexual excitement
• Serves as male organ of
copulation
• Chief roles of the male in the
reproductive process
• Produce sperm
• Produce a hormone,
testosterone
• Sperm production
 • Begins at puberty and continues • Each division of a spermatogonium
throughout life stem cell produces:

• Millions of sperm are made – Type A daughter cell, a stem

every day cell, that continues the stem cell
population
• Sperm are formed in the seminiferous
tubules of the testis – Type B daughter cell, which
becomes a primary
• Spermatogonia (primitive stem
spermatocyte, destined to
cells) begin the process by
undergo meiosis and form four
dividing rapidly
sperm
• During puberty, follicle-
• Meiosis
stimulating hormone (F S H) is
secreted in increasing amounts – Special type of nuclear division
that differs from mitosis

– Occurs in the gonads

– Includes two successive

divisions of the nucleus (meiosis
I and II)

– Results in four daughter cells

(gametes)

• Gametes are spermatids with 23

chromosomes

– 23 chromosomes are half the

usual 46 found in other body
cells

– 23 is known as the haploid

number (n)—half the genetic
material as other body cells

• Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes, n)

with an egg (23 chromosomes, n)
creates a zygote (2 n, or 46
chromosomes)

THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

• Spermiogenesis

– Spermatids are nonmotile and

not functional as sperm

– A streamlining process is
needed to strip excess
cytoplasm from a spermatid
and modify it into a sperm

– A sperm has three regions:

head, midpiece, tail

– Acrosome sits anterior to the

sperm head (nucleus)
– The entire process of
spermatogenesis, including
spermiogenesis, takes 64 to 72
days
STRUCTURE OF SPERM
TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION
• During puberty:
– Follicle-stimulating hormone (F
S H) begins prodding
seminiferous tubules to
produce sperm

– Luteinizing hormone (L H)
begins activating the interstitial
cells to produce testosterone

• Testosterone
– Most important hormonal
product of the testes

– Stimulates reproductive organ

development

– Underlies sex drive

– Causes secondary sex

characteristics

• Deepening of voice

• Increased hair growth

• Enlargement of skeletal
muscles

• Increased bone growth

and density
 • Ovaries

• Duct system

– Uterine (fallopian) tubes

– Uterus

– Vagina

• External genitalia

OVARIES

• Ovaries
 – Produce eggs (ova) and – Ovarian ligaments anchor
hormones (estrogen and ovaries to the uterus medially
progesterone)
– Broad ligaments, a fold of
– Each ovary houses ovarian peritoneum, enclose and hold
follicles consisting of: the ovaries in place

▪ Oocyte (immature egg)

▪ Follicle cells—layers of
different cells that
surround the oocyte

• Ovarian follicles

– Primary follicle—contains an
immature oocyte DUCT SYSTEM
– Vesicular (Graafian) follicle— • Uterine (fallopian) tubes
growing follicle with a maturing
oocyte • Uterus

– Ovulation—the follicle ruptures • Vagina

when the egg is mature and
• Uterine (fallopian) tubes
ready to be ejected from the
ovary; occurs about every 28 • Form the initial part of the duct
days system

– The ruptured follicle is • Receive the ovulated oocyte

transformed into a corpus from the ovaries
luteum
• Usual site for fertilization
• Ovary support
• Empty into the uterus
– Suspensory ligaments secure
• Little or no contact between
the ovaries to the lateral walls
ovaries and uterine tubes
of the pelvis
 • Supported and enclosed by the • Cervix—narrow outlet that
broad ligament protrudes into the vagina

• Uterine (fallopian) tube structure • Layers of the uterus

• Infundibulum • Endometrium

• Distal, funnel-shaped • Inner layer (mucosa)

end
• Site of implantation of a
• Fimbriae fertilized egg

• Fingerlike projections of • Sloughs off if no

the infundibulum pregnancy occurs
(menstruation or
• Receive the oocyte
menses)
from the ovary
• Myometrium is the middle layer
• Cilia located inside the
of smooth muscle that contracts
uterine tube transport
during labor
the oocyte
• Perimetrium (visceral
• Uterus
peritoneum) is the outermost
• Situated between the urinary serous layer of the uterus
bladder and rectum
• Vagina (birth canal)
• Size and shape of a pear, in a
• Passageway that extends from
woman who has never been
cervix to exterior of body and is
pregnant
located between urinary
• Receives, retains, nourishes a bladder and rectum
fertilized egg
• Serves as the canal that allows a
• Uterine support baby or menstrual flow to leave
the body
• Broad ligament suspends the
uterus in the pelvis • Female organ of copulation

• Round ligament anchors the • Receives the penis during sexual

uterus anteriorly intercourse

• Uterosacral ligament anchors • Hymen—partially closes the

the uterus posteriorly vagina until it is ruptured

• Regions of the uterus • The female external genitalia, or vulva,

includes:
• Body—main portion
• Mons pubis
• Fundus—superior rounded
region above where uterine • Labia
tube enters
• Clitoris
 • Urethral orifice – Enclosed by labia majora

• Vaginal orifice – Contains external openings of

the urethra and vagina
• Greater vestibular glands
• Greater vestibular glands

– One is found on each side of the

vagina

– Secretions lubricate vagina

during intercourse

– The clitoris is similar to the

penis in that it is:

• Hooded by a prepuce

• Composed of sensitive
External Genitalia and Female Perineum erectile tissue

• Mons pubis • Swollen with blood

during sexual
– Fatty area overlying the pubic excitement
symphysis
– The clitoris lacks a reproductive
– Covered with pubic hair after duct
puberty
• Perineum
• Labia—skin folds
– Diamond-shaped region
– Labia majora between the anterior ends of
• Hair-covered skin folds the labial folds, anus
posteriorly, and ischial
• Enclose the labia tuberosities laterally
minora
Female Reproductive Functions and Cycles
• Also encloses the
vestibule • The total supply of eggs is determined
by the time a female is born
– Labia minora—delicate, hair-
free folds of skin • Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
with the onset of the menstrual cycle
• Clitoris
• Reproductive ability ends at menopause
– Contains erectile tissue (in female’s fifties)
– Corresponds to the male penis Oogenesis and the Ovarian Cycle
• Vestibule
• Oogenesis is the process of producing
ova (eggs) in a female
– Oogonia are female stem cells
found in a developing fetus
– Oogonia undergo mitosis to
produce primary oocytes that
are surrounded by cells that
form primary follicles in the
ovary
• Primary oocytes are inactive until
puberty
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (F S H)
causes some primary follicles to mature
each month
• Cyclic monthly changes constitute the
ovarian cycle
• Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle
– First meiotic division produces a
larger secondary oocyte and a
smaller first polar body
– A vesicular follicle contains a
secondary oocyte (maturation
from a primary follicle takes
about 14 days)
• Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs
with the release of luteinizing hormone
(L H)
• Secondary oocyte is released and
surrounded by a corona radiata
• Meiosis is completed after ovulation
only if sperm penetrates the oocyte
– Ovum is produced
– Two additional polar bodies are
produced
• Once ovum is formed, the 23
chromosomes can be combined with
the 23 chromosomes of the sperm to
form the fertilized egg (zygote)
• If the secondary oocyte is not
penetrated by a sperm, it dies and does
not complete meiosis to form an ovum
OVULATION
• Mature follicles that are not ovulated
will deteriorate
• Luteinizing hormone (L H)
– Triggers ovulation
– Causes the ruptured follicle to
transform into a corpus luteum
• Meiosis differences between males and
females
– Males—produces four
functional sperm
– Females—produces one
functional ovum and three tiny
polar bodies
• Sex cell size and structure differences
between sperm and eggs
– Sperm are tiny, motile, and
equipped with nutrients in
seminal fluid
 – Egg is large, is nonmotile, and
has nutrient reserves to nourish
the embryo until implantation
EVENTS OF OOGENESIS
Hormone Production by the Ovaries
• Estrogens are produced by follicle cells
– Cause secondary sex
characteristics
Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
▪ Enlargement of
accessory organs of the
female reproductive
system
▪ Development of breasts
▪ Appearance of axillary
and pubic hair
▪ Increase in fat beneath
the skin, particularly in
hips and breasts
▪ Widening and
lightening of the pelvis
▪ Onset of menses
(menstrual cycle)
• Progesterone is produced by the corpus
luteum
– Production continues until L H
diminishes in the blood
– Does not contribute to the
appearance of secondary sex
characteristics
– Other major effects
▪ Helps maintain
pregnancy
▪ Prepares the breasts for
milk production
– Placenta is the major source of
progesterone by the second
month of pregnancy
• Cyclic changes of the endometrium,
about 28 days in length
• Regulated by cyclic production of
estrogens and progesterone by the
ovaries
• F S H and L H, from the anterior
pituitary, regulate the production of
estrogens and progesterone by the
ovaries
• Ovulation typically occurs about midway
through cycle, on day 14
• Stages of the menstrual cycle
• Menstrual phase
 • Proliferative stage and menses to begin on
day 28
• Secretory stage

• Days 0–4: menstrual phase

• Functional layer of the

endometrium is sloughed off

• Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5 days

• By day 4, growing ovarian

follicles are producing more
estrogen

• Days 5–14: proliferative stage

• Regeneration of functional layer

of the endometrium

• Endometrium is
repaired, thickens, and
becomes well
vascularized

• Ovulation occurs in the ovary at

the end of this stage

• Days 15–28: secretory phase

• Levels of progesterone rise and

increase the blood supply to the
endometrium

• If implantation does occur:

• Embryo produces a
hormone that causes
the corpus luteum to
continue producing its
hormones

• If fertilization does not occur:

• Corpus luteum
degenerates as L H
blood levels decline

• Lack of ovarian
hormones causes
endometrial cells to die
Mammary Glands

• Present in both sexes, but function only

in females

– Modified sweat glands

• Function is to produce milk to nourish a

newborn

• Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly

estrogens) to increase in size

• Parts of the mammary gland that form

the breast

– Areola—central pigmented area

of the breast

– Nipple—protruding central area

of areola

– Lobes—internal structures that

radiate around nipple

– Lobules—located within each

lobe and contain clusters of
alveolar glands

– Alveolar glands—produce milk

when a woman is lactating
(producing milk)

– Lactiferous ducts—connect
alveolar glands to nipple

– Lactiferous sinus—dilated
portion where milk accumulates

FEMALE MAMMARY GLANDS

Mammography

• Mammography is X-ray examination

that detects breast cancers too small to
feel

• American Cancer Society recommends

mammography annually for women
between 45 and 54 years old and every
 2 years thereafter if the results are • An oocyte is viable up to 24 hours after
normal ovulation

• Breast cancer is often signaled by a • Sperm are viable up to 48 hours after

change in skin texture, puckering, or ejaculation
leakage from the nipple
– For fertilization to occur, sexual
Figure 16.14 Mammograms intercourse must occur no more
than 2 days before ovulation
and no later than 24 hours after

• Sperm cells must make their way to the

uterine tube for fertilization to be
possible

– Sperm cells are attracted to the

oocyte by chemicals
Pregnancy and Embryonic Development
• When sperm reach the oocyte:
• Pregnancy—time from fertilization until
– Enzymes break down the follicle
infant is born
cells of the corona radiata
• Conceptus—developing offspring around the oocyte

– Embryo—period of time from – Sperm undergo an acrosomal

fertilization until week 8 reaction

– Fetus—week 9 until birth • Enzymes are released

that digest holes in the
• Gestation period—from date of last oocyte membrane
period until birth (approximately 280
days) – Membrane receptors on the
oocyte pull in the head of the
Figure 16.15 Diagrams Showing the first sperm cell to make contact
Approximate Size of a Human Conceptus From
Fertilization to the Early Fetal Stage – Oocyte undergoes second
meiotic division to produce an
ovum and a polar body

Figure 16.16 Sperm and Oocyte During

Fertilization

Accomplishing Fertilization
 • Blastocyst

– Hollow, ball-like structure of

100 cells or more

– Secretes human chorionic

gonadotropin (h C G) to induce
the corpus luteum to continue
producing hormones,
preventing menses, until the
placenta assumes its role

• Functional areas of the blastocyst

• Fertilization occurs when the genetic
material of a sperm combines with that
of an ovum to create a fertilized egg or
zygote
Events of Embryonic & Fetal Development
• Zygote
– First cell of a new individual
– The zygote is the result of the
fusion of D N A from sperm and
ovum
– Trophoblast—large fluid-filled
sphere
– Inner cell mass—cluster of cells
to one side
• By day 7 after ovulation, the blastocyst
has attached to the endometrium and
implantation is complete by day 14 after
ovulation
Figure 16.17 From Fertilization and Cleavage to
Implantation

– The zygote begins rapid mitotic

cell divisions, known as
cleavage, 24 hours after
fertilization

– The zygote journeys down the

uterine tube, moving toward
the uterus

• Cleavage

– Rapid series of mitotic divisions

that begins with the zygote

– Provides a large number of cells

to construct the embryo

– 3 days after ovulation, the

embryo reaches the uterus and
floats as a morula, a ball of 16
cells
 ▪ Endoderm—inside
layer, which forms
mucosae and
associated glands

▪ Mesoderm—middle
layer, which gives rise to
everything else

Figure 16.18 Embryo of Approximately 18 Days

• After implantation, the trophoblast of

the blastocyst develops chorionic villi
(projections)

– Chorionic villi combine with

tissues of the uterus to form the
placenta

• Once the placenta has formed, the

amnion is attached to the placenta by
an umbilical cord
• Inner cell mass of blastocyst develops – Amnion is a fluid-filled sac that
into: surrounds the embryo
– Primary germ layers – Umbilical cord is a blood vessel–
containing stalk of tissue
▪ Ectoderm—outside
layer, which gives rise to
nervous system and
epidermis of skin
 • Fetal changes are summarized in Table
16.1
Figure 16.19 The 7-Week Embryo
Figure 16.20 Examples of Fetal Development

Table 16.1 Development of the Human Fetus

• Placenta

– Forms a barrier between

mother and embryo (blood is
not exchanged)

– Delivers nutrients and oxygen

– Removes wastes from

embryonic blood

– Becomes an endocrine organ

and takes over for the corpus
luteum (by end of second
month); produces estrogen,
progesterone, and other
hormones that maintain
pregnancy

• All organ systems are formed by the end

of the eighth week

• Activities of the fetus are growth and

organ specialization

• The fetal stage is one of tremendous

growth and change in appearance

Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
• Pregnancy—period from conception
until birth
• Anatomical changes
– Enlargement of the uterus
– Accentuated lumbar curvature
(lordosis)
– Relaxation of the pelvic
ligaments and pubic symphysis
due to production of the
hormone relaxin
Figure 16.21 Relative Size of the Uterus Before
Conception and During Pregnancy
Effects of Pregnancy on the Mother
• Physiological changes
– Gastrointestinal system
▪ Morning sickness is
common and is due to
elevated progesterone
and estrogens
▪ Heartburn is common
because of organ
crowding by the fetus
▪ Constipation is caused
by declining motility of
the digestive tract
• Physiological changes
– Urinary system
▪ Kidneys have additional
burden and produce
more urine
▪ The uterus compresses
the bladder, causing
stress incontinence
• Physiological changes
– Respiratory system
▪ Nasal mucosa becomes
congested and swollen
▪ Vital capacity and
respiratory rate
increase
▪ Dyspnea (difficult
breathing) occurs
during later stages of
pregnancy
• Physiological changes
– Cardiovascular system

▪ Blood volume increases
by 25% to 40%
▪ Blood pressure and
pulse increase
▪ Varicose veins are
common
Childbirth (Parturition)
• Initiation of labor
– Labor—the series of events that
expel the infant from the uterus
▪ Rhythmic, expulsive
contractions
▪ Operates by the
positive feedback
mechanism
baby deeper into the mother’s
pelvis
CONCEPT LINK 3
Remember the concept of the feedback loop
(see Chapter 1, p. 41). A stimulus triggers a
receptor, the information is sent to the brain for
processing, and a signal is sent to an effector
with instructions for a response. Most of the
feedback in the body is negative feedback, in
which the response decreases the initial
stimulus. Labor, however, involves positive
feedback: The response (stronger contractions)
actually increases the initial stimulus (oxytocin
release) until the child is born.
Figure 16.22 Oxytocin Promotes Labor
Contractions During Birth by a Positive
Feedback Mechanism (1 to 7)

– False labor—Braxton Hicks

contractions are weak, irregular
uterine contractions

• Initiation of labor

– Estrogen levels rise

– Uterine contractions begin

– The placenta releases

prostaglandins

– Oxytocin receptors increase in

the myometrium

▪ Oxytocin is released by
the posterior pituitary

– Combined effects of rising levels

of hormones—oxytocin and
prostaglandins—initiates
contractions and forces the
 – The amnion ruptures (“breaking
the water”)

– Longest stage, at 6 to 12 hours

Figure 16.23a The Three Stages of Labor

• Stage 2: Expulsion stage

Stages of Labor – Infant passes through the cervix
• Stage 1: Dilation stage and vagina

– Cervix becomes dilated – Can last as long as 2 hours, but

– Full dilation is 10 centimeters
– Uterine contractions begin and
increase
– Cervix softens and effaces
(thins)
typically is 50 minutes in the
first birth and 20 minutes in
subsequent births
– Normal delivery is head-first
(vertex position)
 – Breech presentation is buttocks- – Males have X Y sex
first chromosomes

– Females have X X sex

chromosomes

• Reproductive system structures of

males and females are identical during
early development (indifferent stage)

• Gonads do not begin to form until the

eighth week

• The presence or absence of

testosterone determines whether male
or female accessory reproductive
organs will form

• The reproductive system is inactive

during childhood
• Stage 3: Placental stage
• Reproductive system organs do not
– Delivery of the placenta
function for childbearing until puberty
– Usually accomplished within 15
• Puberty usually begins between ages 10
minutes after birth of infant
and 15
– Afterbirth—placenta and
• Puberty
attached fetal membranes
– Males
– All placental fragments should
be removed to avoid • Enlargement of testes
postpartum bleeding and scrotum signals
onset of puberty (often
around age 13)

– Females

• Budding breasts signal

puberty (often around
age 11)

• Menarche—first
menstrual period
(usually occurs about 2
years later)
Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive
System • Menopause—a whole year has passed
without menstruation
• Gender is determined at fertilization
 – Ovaries stop functioning as – Only birth control method that
endocrine organs is 100% effective

– Childbearing ability ends

– Hot flashes and mood changes

may occur

• There is a no equivalent of menopause

in males, but there is a steady decline in
testosterone

A Closer Look: Contraception

• Contraception—birth control

• Birth control pill—most-used

contraceptive

– Relatively constant supply of

ovarian hormones from pill is
similar to pregnancy

– Ovarian follicles do not mature,

ovulation ceases, menstrual
flow is reduced

• Morning-after pill (M A P) or emergency

contraceptive pill (EC)

– Taken within 3 days of

unprotected intercourse

– Disrupts normal hormonal

signals to the point that
fertilization is prevented

• Sterilization techniques

– Tubal ligation (females)—cut or

cauterize uterine tubes

– Vasectomy (males)—cut or
cauterize the ductus deferens

• Barrier methods

– Diaphragms

– Condoms

• Abstinence