05746581

Published in IET Electrical Systems in Transportation
Received on 13th July 2010

Revised on 8th December 2010
doi: 10.1049/iet-est.2010.0050
ISSN 2042-9738
An effort to formulate frequency modulation
constraints in ship-electrical systems with pulsed
loads
F.D. Kanellos
1
G.J. Tsekouras
2
J. Prousalidis
3
I.K. Hatzilau
2
1
Hellenic Transmission System Operator, System Planning Department, Kastoros 72, Piraeus, 185 45
2
Hellenic Naval Academy, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Laboratory of Electrical Engineering
3
National Technical University of Athens, School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering
E-mail: jprousal@naval.ntua.gr
Abstract: One of the most signicant power supply quality problems in ship electric networks is frequency modulation. This is a
phenomenon most frequently met in extensively electried ships and it is caused by the operation of certain electric loads, known as
pulsed loads, which require high power repeated on a regular or random basis. To the best of the authors knowledge, no well-
based theoretical analysis of the phenomenon exists in the literature, although any existing constraints limiting the operation of
pulsed loads are not properly explained in the respective standards. Hence, in this study, an effort is made, rst to establish a
theoretical explanation of the modulation phenomenon via an analytical mathematical expression comprising all the critical
parameters that affect it, and then highlight the appropriate procedure of setting limits via standards. In this way, the frequency
modulation is expressed as a function of several parameters of the ship electric system. Furthermore, using the obtained
expression, a sensitivity analysis of the particular effect of each of these system parameters is made. The proposed method is a
useful design tool for ship electric power systems enabling the assessment of acceptable pulsed loading level without the need
of complicated simulation models comprising many parameters usually not readily available.
Nomenclature
E
F
generator excitation voltage [volts or per unit
(p.u.)]
P
m
accelerating mechanical power on generator
shaft (W or p.u.)
P
g
, Q
g
active, reactive power produced by the
generator (W or p.u., Var or p.u.)
S
S
full rated apparent power of the supply at
the occurrence of the pulsed load (VA),
which is the nominal base apparent power
of the electric system
R +jX equivalent cable impedance between
generator output and load (V or p.u.)
v ship electric power system cyclic frequency
(rad/s or p.u.)
v
o
electric power system base cyclic frequency
(rad/s or p.u.)
f electric power system frequency (Hz
or p.u.)
J
generator rotor inertia constant (s)

Df
1 2f
frequency deviation from its nominal value
(p.u.)
S
L
, P
L
, Q
L
apparent, active, reactive power of the
system load (VA or p.u., W or p.u.,
Var or p.u.)
DS, DP, DQ apparent, active, reactive power of the
pulsed load (VA or p.u., W or p.u., Var
or p.u.)
T pulsed load period
dc pulsed load duty cycle
cos f pulsed load power factor
V
G
voltage at the generator ends (V or p.u.)
V
L
voltage at the load connection point (V
or p.u.)
R
f
, K
frequency droop and integral gain of

frequency regulator
M
f
lim
frequency modulation limit
1 Introduction
Modern ship buildings are characterised by extensive
electrication of the equipment installed onboard. This
electrication has lead to a series of electric power supply
quality (PSQ) problems, which necessitate an in-depth
investigation, so that appropriate standards are set. One of
IET Electr. Syst. Transp., 2011, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1123 11
doi: 10.1049/iet-est.2010.0050 & The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2011
www.ietdl.org
the most signicant PSQ problems in ship electric networks is
the voltage and frequency modulation [13]. More
specically, modulation is dened as [19] voltage and
frequency, periodic or quasi-periodic, variations such as
might be caused by regularly or randomly repeated
loading. Electric loads usually causing modulation are
loads, which require high power (on the order of the limited
capacity of the generators installed aboard) for a very short
time interval (on the order of a few seconds or even up to
some milliseconds) and are known as pulsed loads [46].
This operation is repeated on a regular or almost regular
basis introducing a periodicity on the entire phenomenon.
Experience from continental and onboard power systems
indicates that the major effects of pulse loading are manifested
in the areas of voltage icker, frequency deviation, dynamic
and transient stability, excitation of torsional frequencies in
generators etc. [4]. Voltage and frequency modulation may
affect the operation of several sensitive subsystems of the ship
such as radarscopes, communication, navigation equipment
etc. Following the current trends, it is expected that the All
Electric Ship (AES) concept (electrication of all installed
systems including main propulsion) will be predominant in the
near future making more critical the effects of pulsed loading
on the operation of the ship-electrical system.
Voltage and frequency modulations are calculated as the
difference between maximum and minimum values
expressed as a percentage of the double of the nominal
value as shown in (1)
M
V
=
V
max
V
min
2V
n
(1a)
M
f
=
f
max
f
min
2f
n
(1b)
Voltages in (1) may be used in rms, peak or mean values.
In Fig. 1, frequency and voltage modulation is depicted.
Up to now, few standards, namely IEEE-45, STANAG-1008
(of NATO), and USA-MIL-1399 [79] have dealt only to some
extent with this issue, releasing relevant rules that are based on
rather empirical curves and are derived for conventional ship
electric systems. For instance, the limits for voltage and
frequency modulation according to STANAG 1008 are 2 and
0.5%, respectively. Furthermore, according to the design
constraints of STANAG 1008 [8: Annex B 9.d], in order
voltage/frequency modulation not to exceed the above-
mentioned limits, reactive and active power of the pulsed load
should satisfy the following inequalities
DQ , 0.065 S
S
(2a)
DP , 0.25 S
S
(2b)
where DP and DQ are the active and the reactive power of the
pulsed load, respectively, S
S
is the full rated apparent power of
the supply at the occurrence of the pulsed load. Considering
the relation between DP, DQ, the apparent power of the
pulsed load, DS, and the power factor of the pulsed load,
cos f, inequalities (2) can be rewritten as:
cos f .
......................
1 a
1
DS(p.u.)
_ _
2
,
_
a = 0.065 (3a)
DS (p.u.) cos f , b, b = 0.25 (3b)
The graphical representation of inequalities (2) or (3) is shown
in Fig. 2.
However, it is noted that the interrelation between the
frequency and voltage modulation limits with the pulsed load
operational characteristics (design constraints) is not clear in
any standard or any other paper in the literature. Only [2]
deals with the problem but with using detailed models of the
ship electric network and large number of simulations.
Moreover, these constraints such as inequalities (2) and (3)
do not take into account certain parameters affecting the entire
modulation phenomenon such as [2]
periodicity of modulation (frequency of the pulse),
duration of the pulsed load (duty cycle),
operational characteristics of the generators and their
associated frequency and voltage controllers,
Fig. 1 Frequency and voltage modulation
Fig. 2 Limit curves for pulsed load operation according to
STANAG-1008
12 IET Electr. Syst. Transp., 2011, Vol. 1, Iss. 1, pp. 1123
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2011 doi: 10.1049/iet-est.2010.0050
www.ietdl.org
system impedance,
prole of the pulsed load,
point of connection of the pulsed load onto the electric grid,
power loading of the generator at the instance of pulsed
load occurrence.
This is why, in this paper, an effort is made to formulate
the theoretical analysis of the frequency modulation
phenomenon, taking into consideration the most important
limiting factors. The problem is highly complicated and, hence,
plausible simplications and assumptions are necessary in order
to relate directly the maximum acceptable pulsed load power
with the system parameters that affect frequency modulation.
Through the analysis presented in the following, a suitable
inequality constraint is derived for frequency modulation,
which involves power factor and apparent power of the pulsed
load as well as several parameters of the ship electric system.
Considering, for instance, the upper limit for frequency
modulation equal to the one proposed by STANAG-1008,
namely 0.5%, the resultant expression becomes
F
f
(x, DS, cos f) 0.005 (4)
The main novelty introduced in this paper consists in that
function, F
f
, is a non-linear analytic expression of vector x,
comprising the parameters of the ship electric grid model as
well as pulsed load parameters
x = [T, dc, J
, K
fI
, R
f
] (5)
where T is the pulsed load period, dc the pulsed load duty cycle,
J
the generator rotor inertia constant and R

f
, K
are the
frequency droop and integral gain of frequency regulator.
This analytic expression is a useful implement, mainly at
the design stage of the electric system, as it enables the
performance of system capacity assessment studies. In
Sections 2 and 3, the case study system is described and the
mathematical analysis of frequency modulation estimation
is developed. In Section 4 of the paper, a sensitivity
analysis with respect to vector x is made, while the
obtained results are compared with the existing limitations
proposed by the standards. Discussion is also done on the
extent that each parameter affects frequency modulation.
2 Case study system
Next, the electric power system of a ship is considered as
simplied but generic as possible, see Fig. 3 [10]. This can be
the equivalent model of a conventional ship or an AES. The
power produced by a synchronous generator is transmitted to
the load via a major electrical path with an impedance R +jX.
Automatic frequency and voltage regulators control the
frequency and voltage at generator terminals.
The supplied load consists of a base load (including electric
propulsion in the case of AES) and a pulsed load. A typical
pulsed load prole as that shown in Fig. 4 is used for the
following analysis.
Consequently, the pulsed load within a period, that is when
0 t , T, is given by the expression
DS(t) = DS[u(t) u(t dc T)], 0 t , T (6)
where u(t) is the step function.
Applying Laplace transformation to the periodical function
DS(t) function results in
DS(s) =
DS
1 e
sT
1
s
e
dc Ts
s
_ _
(7)
3 Frequency modulation estimation
The aim of the following analysis is to obtain a mathematical
dynamic expression, as simple as possible, of frequency
modulation in the presence of pulsed load. The set of
equations used for frequency deviation estimation is given
next, in more detail.
If friction losses are neglected, then the motion equation of
the generator rotor is
J
dv
dt
= T
m
T
el
(8a)
The corresponding equation comprising changes in rotating
speed, mechanical and electric power results in (8b), which
is expressed in per unit (p.u.) [11, 12]
J
v
dDv
dt
= DP
g
DP
m
(p.u.) (8b)
where P
g
is the active power produced by the generator. The
full rated apparent power of the supply at the instant of the
occurrence of the pulsed load S
S
is used as base apparent
power. P
m
is the accelerating mechanical power, v is the
rotor rotating speed, Dv 1 2v, J is the rotor inertia (in
kg m
2
) and J
J v
0
2
/S
S
(in s). Symbol D denotes the
differential change.
Fig. 4 Pulsed load typical prole
Fig. 3 Simplied electrical circuit of ship electrical network
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Considering that, in p.u. system, f is equal to v, (8b) can be
rewritten as
J
f
dDf
dt
= DP
g
DP
m
(p.u.) (9)
where Df 1 2f (p.u.).
The analysis that follows takes into consideration both
primary and secondary frequency adjustments. If only the
primary frequency adjustment is to be examined, the
frequency droop equation of the generator is
DP
m
= R
f
Df (10)
where R
f
is the frequency droop of the combination of the
generator and its associated speed governor.
On the other hand, if secondary frequency adjustment is
also taken into account, then (10) turns into
DP
m
= R
f
Df +K
fI
_
t
0
Df dt (11)
with K
being the integral gain of the speed controller.

The solution of the set of equations (9) and (11) results in
the estimation of the frequency deviation, taking also into
account the secondary frequency adjustment
J
f
dDf
dt
= P
pulse
(t) R
f
Df K
fI
_
t
0
Df dt (12)
In addition, assuming that frequency is close to its nominal
value, that is f 1 (p.u.), then (12) is reduced to
J
d Df
dt
= P
pulse
(t) R
f
Df K
fI
_
t
0
Df dt (13)
Applying Laplace transformation to (13) results in
J
(sDF(s) Df (0)) +R
f
DF(s) P
pulse
(s) +
K
fI
s
DF(s) = 0
(14)
Assuming that before pulsed load occurrence, frequency error
is zero, Df (0) 0, then (14) reduces to
DF(s) =
s
J
s
2
+R
f
s +K
fI
P
pulse
(s) (15)
Substituting (7) in (15), then Laplace transformation of
frequency deviation DF(s) turns into
DF(s) =
(1 e
dc Ts
)DS cos f
J
s
2
+R
f
s +K
fI
1
1 e
sT
(16)
Letting
1
J
s
2
+R
f
s +K
fI
=
1
J
(s +p
1
)(s +p
2
)
(17)
where
p
1
=
R
f

.............
R
2
f
4J
K
fI
_
2J
, p
2
=
R
f
+
.............
R
2
f
4J
K
fI
_
2J
(18)
and provided that R
f
2
. 4J
K
fI
[this condition corresponds
to a positive value of the discriminant of the denominator
binomial in (17)] the Laplace transformation of frequency
deviation, DF(s), becomes
DF(s) =
(1 e
dc Ts
)DS cos f
J
(s +p
1
)(s +p
2
)
1
1 e
sT
(19)
Equation (19) can be rewritten as
DF(s) =
1
s +p
1
1
s +p
2
_ _
e
dc Ts
s +p
1
e
dc Ts
s +p
2
_ _ _ _
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
1
1 e
sT
(20)
Consequently, frequency in time domain is obtained from
inverse Laplace transformation of (20) as
Df (t) =
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
1
n=0
[(e
p
1
(tnT)
e
p
2
(tnT)
)u(t nT) (e
p
1
(t(n+dc)T)
e
p
2
(t(n+dc)T)
)u(t (n +dc)T)] (21)
Finally, considering that time is limited within one period T,
that is nT , t , (n +1)T, (21) can be rewritten as follows
(see (22))
Letting t
t 2nT, (22) is rewritten as follows

Df (t) = Df
1
(t) +Df
2
(t
) (23)
with
Df
1
(t) =
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
dc T
1
e
p
1
T
1
e
p
1
t
e
p
2
dc T
1
e
p
2
T
1
e
p
2
t
_ _
(24)
Df (t) =
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
dc T
1
e
p
1
T
1
e
p
1
t
e
p
2
dc T
1
e
p
2
T
1
e
p
2
t
+u(t nT) e
p
1
(tnT)
e
p
1
T
e
p
1
dc T
e
p
1
T
1
e
p
2
(tnT)
e
p
2
T
e
p
2
dc T
e
p
2
T
1
_ _ _ _
u(t nT dc T)(e
p
1
(tnTdc T)
e
p
2
(tnTdc T)
) (22)
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and
Df
2
(t
) =
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
u(t
) e
p
1
t
e
p
1
T
e
p
1
dcT
e
p
1
T
1
e
p
2
t
e
p
2
T
e
p
2
dcT
e
p
2
T
1
_ _ _
u(t
dcT)(e
p
1
(t
dcT)
e
p
2
(t
dcT)
)
_
(25)
Moreover, it is noted that
lim
n1
_
nT+T
nT
Df (t) dt = 0 (26)
which means that, in steady state (i.e. t 1 and n 1),
the mean value of the frequency deviation is zero for each
period.
Indicative plots of Df
1
, Df
2,
Df and f are given in the
diagrams of Fig. 5. Plots of Fig. 5 are obtained considering
DS 0.15 p.u., cos f 0.8, R
f
20, J
4 s, K
10,
dc 0.5 and T 0.6 s.
The frequency term Df
1
is maximised at time t
max1
, where
t
max1
= max
1
p
2
p
1
ln
p
2
p
1
(e
p
2
dc T
1)
(e
p
1
dc T
1)
(e
p
1
T
1)
(e
p
2
T
1)
_ _
, 0
_ _
(27)
Consequently, maximum value of Df
1
is
t
max1
. 0:
max Df
1
=
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
dc T
1
e
p
1
T
1
p
2
p
1
p
1
e
p
1
t
max1
(28a)
t
max 1
= 0:
max Df
1
=
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
dc T
1
e
p
1
T
1

e
p
2
dc T
1
e
p
2
T
1
_ _
(28b)
Furthermore, the periodic frequency term Df
2
is maximised
when t
dc T, or when t
t
max2
, if t
max2
, dc T, where
t
max2
t
max2
=min
1
p
2
p
1
ln
p
2
p
1
(e
p
2
T
e
p
2
dcT
)
(e
p
1
T
e
p
1
dcT
)
(e
p
1
T
1)
(e
p
2
T
1)
_ _
; dcT
_ _
(29)
The maximum value of Df
2
is
max Df
2
=
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
t
max 2
e
p
1
T
e
p
1
dc T
e
p
1
T
1
_
e
p
2
t
max 2
e
p
2
T
e
p
2
dc T
e
p
2
T
1
_
(30)
Fig. 5 Plots
a Frequency deviation Df
1
b Frequency deviation Df
2
c Frequency deviation Df
d Frequency f
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In the worst-case scenario, the minimum frequency takes
place if the maxima of both Df
1
and Df
2
terms occur at the
same time, t. In this case, the minimum frequency, f
min
, is
f
min
= 1 max Df
1
max Df
2
(31)
It can be safely assumed that the periodic frequency term Df
2
is minimised at t
T or at t
0, that is when the idle period

of the pulsed load ends.
In both cases, the minimum value of Df
2
is
min Df
2
= Df
2
(0) =
DS cos f
J
(p
2
p
1
)
e
p
1
T
e
p
1
dc T
e
p
1
T
1

e
p
2
T
e
p
2
dc T
e
p
2
T
1
_ _
(32)
From (24), it is apparent that when t 1, then Df
1
0.
Consequently the maximum frequency, f
max
, can be
calculated as follows
f
max
= 1 min Df
2
(33)
According to (1b) and taking into account (31) and (33),
frequency modulation becomes
M
f
=
f
max
f
min
2f
n
=
max Df
2
+max Df
1
min Df
2
2 f
n
(34)
Following a series of calculations, (34) results in
M
f
=
DS cos fc
2J
f
n
(p
2
p
1
)
=
DS cos fc
2f
n
.............
R
2
f
4J
K
fI
_ (35)
with the parameter c calculated as follows
c = c
(p
1
, dc, T, t
max1
, t
max2
) c
(p
2
, dc, T, t
max1
, t
max2
)
(36)
where
c
(p, dc, T, t
max1
, t
max 2
)
=
(e
pdcT
1)e
pt
max 1
+(e
pT
e
pdcT
)e
pt
max2
e
pT
+e
pdcT
e
pT
1
(37)
Taking into consideration STANAG-1008 constraint
for frequency modulation (M
f
should be smaller
than M
f
lim
0.5%), then the following inequality is
obtained
DS cos f ,
2M
lim
f
f
n
J
(p
2
p
1
)
c
(38)
Inequality (38) denes a parabolic curve on the Scos f
plane, as it is also foreseen by STANAG-1008 [as shown
in Fig. 2 and dened by inequality (3b)] involving several
parameters of ship electric power system model such as
dc, T, R
f
, J
, K
which must be taken into account during

the design of the electric power system. Moreover, it can
be concluded that Scos f limitation curve for frequency
deviation is not unique as assumed in standards like
STANAG-1008, but it depends on the system model
parameters mentioned above.
It should be mentioned that inequality (38) has been
developed within time interval t [ [0, 1), whereas
standards, like STANAG-1008, do not dene the respective
study time period of the frequency modulation.
On the other hand, if the condition R
f
2
. 4J
K
fI
is
not valid, then the following two cases should be
considered.
Case A: If R
f
2
4J
K
fI
[this condition corresponds
to a zero discriminant of the denominator binomial in
(17)], then
p =
R
f
2J
(39)
while the Laplace transformation of frequency deviation
DF(s) becomes
DF(s) =
(1 e
dc Ts
)DS cos f
J
(s +p)
2

1
1 e
sT
(40)
Frequency deviation in time domain is obtained from
inverse Laplace transformation of (40) as
Df (t) =
DS cos f
J
1
n=0
[ sin (p(t nT))u(t nT)
sin(p(t (n +dc)T))u(t (n +dc)T)] (41)
Finally for nT , t , (n +1)T, (41) can be rewritten as
follows (see (42a) and (42b))
Alternatively, (42) can be written using
Df (t) =
DS cos f
J
p
sin(npT/2)
sin(pT/2)
sin p t
n 1
2
T
_ _ _ _
sin p t
n 1
2
+dc
_ _
T
_ _ _ _ _ _
+sin(p(t nT)) sin(p(t (n +dc)T))u(t (n +dc)T)
(42a)
Df (t) =
DS cos f
J
p
2
sin(npT/2) sin(dc pT/2)
sin(p T/2)
cos p t
n 1 +dc
2
T
_ _ _ _
+sin(p(t nT)) sin(p(t (n +dc)T)) u(t (n +dc)T)
(42b)
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0 t
t 2nT , T
Df (t
) =
2
DS cos f
R
f
C
1 n
cos(p t
f
1n
), 0 t
, dc T
2
DS cos f
R
f
C
2n
cos(pt
f
2n
), dc T t
(43a)
where (see (43b)(43e))
The frequency deviation Df can be maximised at
t
1n
=
f
1n
+2kp
p
, k [ Z, t
1n
[ [0, dc T) or
t
2n
=
f
2n
+2kp
p
, k [ Z, t
2n
[ [dc T, T) or
t
= 0
+
or t
= (dc T)
or t
= (dc T)
+
or t
= T
(44a)
where Z is the set of integer numbers. The frequency
deviation Df can be minimised at
t
1n
=
f
1n
+2kp p
p
, k [Z, t
1n
[[0, dc T) or
t
2n
=
f
2n
+2kp p
p
, k [Z, t
2n
[[dc T, T) or
t
= 0
+
or t
= (dc T)
or t
= (dc T)
+
or t
= T
(44b)
Practically, the frequency deviation is bounded within the
range dened in (45)
max|Df (t)| 2
DS cos f
J
p
sin(dc pT/2)
sin(pT/2)
+1
_ _
= 4
DS cos f
R
f
sin(dc pT/2)
sin(pT/2)
+1
_ _
(45)
Indicative plots of Df and f are given in the diagrams
Fig. 6 Plots
b Frequency, f in the case of one double radical in (17)
C
1n
=
..............................................................................................
4
sin(pT/2)
_ _
2
+1 4
sin(pT/2)
_ _
sin p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
_
(43b)
f
2n
= tan
1
1 2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
sin p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
cos pdcT
_ _
2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
cos p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
+sin pdcT
_ _
(43c)
C
2n
=
........................................................................................................
4
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
2
+2 +2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
sin p
n +1 +dc
2
T
_ _
2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
sin p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
cos pdcT
_ _
_
(43d)
f
2n
= tan
1
1 2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
sin p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
cos pdcT
_ _
2
sin npT/2
_ _
sin dcpT/2
_ _
sin pT/2
_ _
_ _
cos p
n +1 dc
2
T
_ _
+sin pdcT
_ _
(43e)
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of Fig. 6, which are obtained considering DS 0.15 p.u., cos
f 0.8, R
f
20, J
4 s, K
25, dc 0.5 and

T 0.6 s.
According to (1b) and taking into account (45), frequency
modulation is estimated by
M
f
=
f
max
f
min
2f
n
max|Df (t)| (max|Df (t)|)

2f
n
= 4
DS cos f
R
f
f
n
sin(dc pT/2)
sin(pT/2)
+1
_ _
(46)
Case B: If R
f
2
, 4J
K
fI
[this condition corresponds to a
negative valued discriminant of the denominator binomial
in (17)], then (17) can be written as
DF(s) =
1
s
2
+(R
f
/J
)s +(K
fI
/J
)
DS cos f
J
1 e
dc Ts
1 e
sT
=
1
(s +a
b
)
2
+v
2
b
DS cos f
J
1 e
dc Ts
1 e
sT
(47a)
where
a
b
=
R
f
2J
and v
b
=
.............
4K
fI
J
R
2
f
_
2J
(47b)
Equation (47a) can be rewritten as
DF(s) =
v
b
(s +a
b
)
2
+v
2
b
2
DS cos f
.............
4K
fI
J
R
2
f
_
1 e
dc Ts
1 e
sT
(48)
Consequently, frequency deviation in time domain is
obtained from inverse Laplace transformation of (48) as
Df (t) =2
DScosf
.............
4K
fI
J
R
2
f
_
1
n=0
[e
a
b
(tnT)
sin(v
b
(t nT))u(t nT)
e
a
b
(t(n+dc)T
sin(v
b
(t (n+dc)T)u(t (n+dc)T)]
(49)
The frequency deviation is the sum of the decreasing
exponential sinusoidal functions with cyclic frequency v
b
and exponent parameter a
b
. The respective limits (minimum
and maximum) of the frequency deviation can be calculated
via numerical analysis techniques. The frequency deviation
is bounded within the region dened next
max|Df (t)| 4
DS cosf
.............
4K
fI
J
R
2
f
_
1
e
a
b
T
1
(50)
According to (1b) and taking into account (50), frequency
modulation is limited by
M
f
=
f
max
f
min
2f
n
max|Df (t)| (max|Df (t)|)

2f
n
=4
DS cos f
f
n
.............
4K
fI
J
R
2
f
_
1
e
a
b
T
1
(51)
Generally, the last two cases, A and B, are to be avoided, as
they lead to signicant frequency oscillations.
Special case: no secondary frequency adjustment: Another
special case is if there is no secondary frequency adjustment,
where K
0. Equation (15) is modied as

DF(s) =
1
J
s +R
f
P
pulse
(s) (52)
Substituting (7) in (52) then Laplace transformation of
frequency deviation DF(s) becomes
DF(s) =
(1 e
dc T s
)DS cos f
s(J
s +R
f
)
1
1 e
sT
=
(1 e
dc T s
)DS cos f
J
s(s +p)
1
1 e
sT
(53)
with
p =
R
f
J
(54)
Equation (54) can be rewritten as
DF(s) =
1
s
1
s +p
_ _
DS cos f
J
p
1 e
dc T s
1 e
sT
=
1
s
1
s +p
_ _
DS cos f
R
f
1 e
dc Ts
1 e
sT
(55)
Frequency in time domain is obtained from inverse Laplace
transformation of (55) as
Df (t) =
DS cos f
R
f
1
n=0
[(1 e
p(tnT)
)u(t nT)
(1 e
p(t(n+dc)T)
)u(t (n +dc)T)] (56)
Finally, considering that nT , t , (n +1)T and t
t 2nT,
(56) can be rewritten as follows
Df (t) =
DS cos f
R
f
e
dc pT
1
e
pT
1
(1 e
npT
)e
pt
+1 e
pt
_
(1 e
p(t
dc T)
)u(t
dc T)
_
(57)
The periodic frequency deviation Df is maximised at t
dc T
and the respective maximum value of Df is
max Df =
DS cos f
R
f
e
pT
e
npT
e
pT
1
(1 e
p dc T
) (58a)
The end maximum value of Df for t [ [0, 1) is obtained for
t 1 (n 1) as
max Df =
DS cos f
R
f
e
pT
e
pT
1
(1 e
p dc T
) (58b)
Similarly, the periodic frequency deviation Df is
minimised at t
0 with the respective minimum value of

www.ietdl.org
Df being
min Df =
DS cos f
R
f
e
dc pT
1
e
pT
1
(1 e
npT
)
_ _
(59a)
The end minimum value of Df for t [ [0, 1) is obtained for
t 0 as
min Df = 0 (59b)
Indicative plots of Df and f are given in the diagrams of
Fig. 7, which are obtained considering DS 0.15 p.u.,
cos f 0.8, R
f
20, J
4 s, K
0, dc 0.5 and
T 0.6 s.
According to (1) and taking into account (58b) and (59b)
frequency modulation is obtained from
M
f
=
f
max
f
min
2f
n
=
DS cos f
2f
n
R
f
e
pT
e
pT
1
(1 e
p dc T
) (60)
From Fig. 7 and (60), it is obvious that there is a non-zero
frequency steady-state error, in contrast to the general case
of (26), where for each period, the mean value of the
frequency equals the nominal one of the steady state. This
highlights the importance of the secondary frequency
adjustment, so that the generator frequency system is
controlled by a proportional-integral controller.
Furthermore, taking into consideration STANAG-1008
constraint for frequency modulation M
f
lim
, then the
following inequality is set
M
f
, M
lim
f
DS cos f ,
2 M
lim
f
f
n
R
f
(e
pT
1)
e
pT
(1 e
p dc T
)
(61)
Conclusively, it has been proven by (38) and (60) that
parameter b of the generalised inequality (3b) is not
constant, but it is a multivariable non-linear function of the
generator rotor inertia constant J
, frequency droop R
f
, the
integral gain of frequency controller K
, the pulsed load

period T and the pulsed load duty cycle dc. Thus, in the
case R
f
2
. 4J
according to (38) the parameter b equals to

b =
2M
lim
f
f
n
J
(p
2
p
1
)
c
(62)
where c is calculated by (36) and (37), p
1
and p
2
by (18).
Similarly, in the other cases parameter b can be calculated
(60) or properly bounded (46) and (51). On the contrary,
the respective constraint of STANAG 1008 is xed
at b 25%, which proves the insufcient provisions
regarding the issues mentioned above.
4 Sensitivity analysis discussion on the
practical importance of the method
In the following, the effect of several parameters of electric
power system model on frequency modulation is
investigated. The reference base scenario examined refers
to: DS 0.15 p.u. cos f 0.8, R
f
20, J
4 s,
K
10, dc 0.5 and T 0.6 s. Thus, in the diagrams of

Figs. 8 and 9, the effect of pulsed load duty cycle and
period, generator rotor inertia and frequency droop,
frequency controller integral gain K
and droop R
f
is
depicted.
It is obvious that pulsed load duty cycle, period and
frequency droop affect signicantly frequency modulation.
On the other hand, the effect of frequency controller
integral gain K
seems to be less signicant. It is worth

noting that in case of K
0, that is when only primary

frequency adjustment is involved, smaller frequency
modulation is obtained. Moreover, while frequency droop
R
f
and rotor inertia constant J
have an almost linear and

mathematically monotonous effect on frequency modulation,
pulsed load duty cycle, dc, and period, T, do not affect
frequency modulation in a uniform manner all over their
range of values.
In Fig. 9a, the indicative three-dimensional (3D) plot of
the frequency deviation against time (per pulsed load
period) and frequency droop is given. It can be seen that
small frequency droops cause fairly large frequency
deviations. In Fig. 9b, the respective 3D plot of the
frequency deviation against time and rotor inertia is
provided, where it is validated that small rotor inertias
provoke large frequency deviations. In Fig. 9c, where
the 3D plot of the frequency deviation against time
and integral gain of frequency controller is given, it is
shown that changes of the integral gain cause small
variations in frequency deviations for a large range of
values provided that the gain is far away from the zero
value and from that value satisfying the inequality
R
f
2
4J
K
fI
. Here, the corresponding frequency
oscillations are high for the values K
0 and K
25
(where R
f
2
4J
K
fI
).
In Fig. 9d, the 3D plot of the frequency deviation against
time and pulsed load duty cycle is depicted, where it is
apparent that for big values of duty cycle, the positive
frequency deviation takes the biggest values, whereas for
values of duty cycle around 40 and 80% the negative
frequency deviation takes the biggest values. These lead the
frequency modulation to be maximum one when the duty
Fig. 7 Plots
b Frequency in the case of K
0 in (17)
www.ietdl.org
cycle is around 70%, as it is also shown in Fig. 8a. In Fig. 9e,
the 3D plot of the frequency deviation against time and pulsed
load period is presented, where it is remarkable that frequency
modulation is less sensitive for pulsed load periods larger than
a certain value (in this case approximately over 1.2 s).
In Figs. 1012 frequency modulation limitation curves
(i.e. the locus of points, where M
f
0.005) on the cos fDS
plane are shown, using as parameters the generator rotor
inertia constant J
, frequency droop R
f
and pulsed load
period T, respectively. All these parameters affect frequency
modulation signicantly, as shown in Fig. 8, and
consequently displace considerably frequency modulation
limitation curves on the cos fDS plane. More specically,
the acceptable operation region decreases as generator rotor
Fig. 8 Plots
a Frequency modulation against pulsed load duty cycle for various pulsed load periods
b Frequency modulation against rotor inertia constant for various frequency droops
c Frequency modulation against integral gain of frequency controller for various frequency droops
www.ietdl.org
inertia constant J
decreases, frequency droop R

f
decreases or
pulsed load period T increases.
Moreover, pulsed load period affects more the limitation
curves in low value regions, whereas in the examined case
study, its effect enters into saturation, beyond a certain
value for example T 1 s.
Figs. 1012 and the nal results of Section 3 prove that
parameter b in (3b) is a multivariable non-linear function
Fig. 9 3D plot of frequency deviation against time per pulsed load period
a Frequency droop
b Rotor inertia
c Integral gain of frequency controller
d Pulsed load duty cycle
e Pulsed load period
www.ietdl.org
and not a constant value. Moreover, the necessity and the
correctness of the sensitivity analysis of the generalised
inequality (3b) for different values for b of [2] have been
veried. Finally, the sensitivity of frequency modulation,
M
f
, for each design parameter was quantied by calculating
the respective partial derivatives. They were calculated for
the base scenario examined above and they are depicted in
Fig. 13. It is obvious that the effect of J
, R
f
and T is almost
equivalent for M
f
greater than 0.3 p.u. However, taking also
into consideration their lower values, that is those
corresponding to M
f
, 0.3 p.u., the parameters can be
sorted in decreasing order of criticality as:
frequency droop, R
f
;
pulsed load period, T;
rotor inertia constant, J
;
integral gain of frequency controller, K
i
.
It is worth noting that the methodology analysis presented
above can be used as a useful design tool for ship electric
power systems, especially the AES ones, where pulsed
load tends to be predominant. In this way, a preliminary
investigation of system pulsed loading limits can be
performed without either the need of complicated
simulation models or system parameters that are not readily
available by manufacturers. Moreover, the approach can
be used as an implement providing the means for
Fig. 10 Pulsed load power factor, cos f, against pulsed load
apparent power amplitude, DS, for various rotor inertia constants
apparent power amplitude, DS, for various frequency droops
apparent power amplitude, DS, for various periods
Fig. 13 Partial derivatives of M
f
www.ietdl.org
investigating possible alterations to existing standards or set
new ones.
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the necessary theoretical basis to study
frequency modulation and its limitations in ship electric
power systems with pulsed loads is provided. The analysis
which is missing from the literature is based on a simplied
but generic ship grid conguration, referring to either
electric or to more conventional propulsion scheme.
Suitable simplications and assumptions are made in order
to relate pulsed load apparent power and power factor with
the parameters of the electric power system affecting
frequency modulation. In this way, a suitable inequality
constraint for acceptable power system pulsed loading is
derived. The resultant expression is analytic and it can be
exploited for in-depth studies at the design stage.
Within this frame, a sensitivity analysis considering the
parameters affecting frequency modulation from pulsed
loading is provided. Thus, this analysis provides also useful
information for the criticality of each design parameter. The
parameters examined can be sorted in decreasing order of
criticality as:
frequency droop, R
f
;
pulsed load period, T;
rotor inertia constant, J
;
integral gain of frequency controller, K
i
.
The proposed method can be a useful design tool for ship
electric power systems, especially for modern electried
buildings within the AES concept. Thus, a preliminary
investigation of system pulsed loading limits can be
performed without the need of complicated simulation
models comprising many parameters usually not directly
known or estimated. Furthermore, this method could also
be exploited as a means to investigate possible alterations
to existing standards dealing with the pulsed load
dimensioning problem. Exploiting the proposed method, the
above mentioned parameters that affect frequency
modulation can be included in standards dealing with PSQ
problems.
6 References
1 Prousalidis, J., Styvaktakis, E., Hatzilau, I.K., Kanellos, F.D., Perros, S.,
Sofras, E.: Electric power supply quality in ship systems an overview,
Int. J. Ocean Syst. Manag., 2008, 1, (1), pp. 6883
2 Kanellos, F.D., Hatzilau, I.K., Prousalidis, J.: Investigation of voltage/
frequency modulation in ship electric networks with pulsed loads
according to STANAG 1008 design constraints. All Electric Ship
Conf. 2007, London
3 Hatzilau, I.K., Prousalidis, J., Styvaktakis, E., Kanellos, F.D., Perros, S.,
Sofras, E.: Electric power supply quality concepts for the all electric
ship (AES). World Maritime Technology Conf. (WMTC2006),
London, INEC 2006, IMarEST, 610 March 2006
4 Howard, A., Smolleck Satish, J., Ranade Nadipuram, R., Rudolph, P.,
Velasco, O.: Effects of pulsed power loads upon an electric power
grid. IEEE/PSS 1990 Sumner Meeting, Minneapolis, Minnesota,
1519 July 1990
5 Vilar, Z.W., Dougal, R.A.: Effectiveness of generator control strategies
on meeting pulsed load requirements in ship electric systems. IEEE
ESTS 2005, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2527 July 2005
6 Sudhoff, S.D., Kuhn, B.T., Zivi, E., Delisle, D.E., Clayton, D.: Impact
of pulsed power loads on naval power and propulsion systems. 13th
SCSS 2003, Orlando-Florida, USA, 79 April 2003
7 IEEE Std 451998: IEEE recommended practice for electrical
installations on shipboard, IEEE-SA Standards Board, New York,
USA, September 1998
8 STANAG 1008: Characteristics of shipboard electrical power systems
in warships of the NATO Navies (NATO, 2004, 9th edn.)
9 MILITARY-STD-1399(NAVY): Interface standard for shipboard
systems section 300a electric power, alternating current, USA
Department of Defense, October 1987
10 Kanellos, F.D., Hatzilau, I.K., Prousalidis, J., Styvaktakis, E.:
Simulation of a shipboard electrical network (AES) comprising
pulsed loads. Engine as a Weapon II, IMarEST, London, 2006
11 Krause, P.: Analysis of electric machinery (McGraw-Hill, 1986)
12 Chee-Mun Ong, C.: Dynamic simulation of electric machinery using
matlab/simulink (Prentice Hall PTR, 1998)
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Published in IET Electrical Systems in Transportation

Received on 13th July 2010

generator rotor inertia constant (s)

frequency droop and integral gain of

the generator rotor inertia constant and R

being the integral gain of the speed controller.

t 2nT, (22) is rewritten as follows

0, that is when the idle period

which must be taken into account during

25, dc 0.5 and

max|Df (t)| (max|Df (t)|)

max|Df (t)| (max|Df (t)|)

0. Equation (15) is modied as

0 with the respective minimum value of

, the pulsed load

according to (38) the parameter b equals to

10, dc 0.5 and T 0.6 s. Thus, in the diagrams of

seems to be less signicant. It is worth

0, that is when only primary

have an almost linear and

decreases, frequency droop R

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