Taxonomy

Taxonormy: The ten "Taxonomy" derived from two Greek words

Tais meaning arrangement and 'nomos' meaning law [axonomy is
ascience that includes description, identification, classification
and nomenclature of animals on the basis of certain similar
characters.1
W Taxonomy is the theoretical study of classification including its bases,
principles, procedures and rules.
O Classification: The dassification is the ordering of animals into
groups (or sets) on the basis of their relationships that is of
associations ty contiguty, similarity or both (Simson, 1961).7
Classification is the arrangement of the individuals into groups (taxa)
and the groups into a system in which the data about the individuals
deternine ther postion in the system and thereater are reflected by
the pasiton (Black welder, 1967).

There are four components of dassification i.e.,HierarchyTaxon,

)Category and)Rark.
Hierarchy: Ahieracchyis a systematic framework for zoological
classification with, seuence of classes (or sets) at cifferent levels in
which each class except the lowest one includes one or more
subordinate classes (Simson, 1961).

j Taxaand Rank:The disjoint classes at each level are called taxa and
the ordinal levelsare called ranks] Examples of taxonomic anks are
spedies, genus, lamiy, order, class, phylum, kingdom.
'Taxon' (plural is Taxa) is a group of real organisms recognized as a
formal unit at any level of hierarchic classifcaton (Simson,1961).
Chordata, Amphibia, Nammalia, Bufonidae etc.

Category: The taxa of a given rank constitute a category ie..]each

step or class in the hierarchy of classification is called calegory)
Font 26D deals w ith Voning
4/5/2017.

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Group Vertebrata
Subphylum Gnathostomala
Super Class Tetrapoda
Class Amphibia
Subclass Lissamphibia
Order Anura

Family Bufonidae
Genus Bufo.

Species B. melanosictus
Sub Species

Linnean Hierarchy:
kinnaeus recognized only five hierarchic levels within the animal
kingdom. These were classis Cass), ordo (order), genus, specdes
and variety.
Later twO additional categories, family and phylum were added.
The six categories phylum, class, order family, genus, and
form the basic taxonamic hierarchy of animals and anyspecies given
animal must belong to these six categories. The term variety was
Ceventually discarded
More recently two other categories tribe, between genus. and
family and cohort between order and class have become widely
used.

The increase in the number of known species together with the

degrees of relationship between them influenced laxonomists to
assign precise taxonomic position to species. This resuted in
spliting of original basic categories and also additions of some
among them. With the result there are as many as, 33 categories
presently in use in the hierarchic classification. Of these 33
categories only 18 are generally followed. The standardized
endings are shown bellow.
 Kingdom
Phylum
Subphylum
Superclass
Lingean Hien arahy
Class
Subclass
Cohort
Superorder
Order
Suborder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Tribe
Genus
Subgenus
Species
Taxonomic Category: Subspecies
Systematic framework lor zoological or botanical classilication with the sequence
of classes or steps at diferent levels, each step or class in the hierarchy of
classiication is called category. The highest category is phylum and the lowest
category is subspedes. The categories can be divided intb two groups:
Higher category or supra-specific categories e.g., from phylurm lo species.
Lower categoriesor infra-specifc categories e.g. subspedes.

*Procedure of Taxonomic work

Anumber of considerations are important if a taxonomic work is
attempted which are described bellow:
{DCollection; where and how to collect:
All possible geographic information mus1 be oblained before hand,
including the distribution of vegetation types, atttudes, seasons,
means of public and private transportation etc. Aplolting of collecing
staions and in particulars a mapping species distribution one will
reveal the location of crucial areas.
There are various ways for collecting animals round the year. The
methods may vary frorn picking up insects flying towards a torch
light in the evening to trawling or dredging for deep sea animals.
Insects from the most dominant group of animals due to their
enorinous hiumber conbtned with divrse habits. These are toundTn
the air, in fresh or brackish water; on the foliage or stems of trees and
shrubs; low growing plants; internally in plants, plant products, seeds
and fruits, amongdebris; in the nests or habitations in the animals and
man, in the soil and other insects or animals. By knowing their habit
one can easily pick them up with fingers. However for easy, quick and
large collection, one need special collecting equipment together with
the study of extensive field obsevalions.
 Insect can be collected by sweeping, usinggeneral purpose nets during
sunny days, ight traps for Insects attracted to light, baits and baits
traps; and different types of traps for flying Insects,e g. malaise traps
etc. New techniques are continually being developed as the tIse of mislynets
for bird collections and of black-light (Ulta violet larnp) for insects Different
kinds ol traps baits, bail poisons and so on are well kwon to specalist, who
generally share such inormallon with beginning.
Killing: Various kinds of killing agents are used but he best ones are
those which kil the hsects immedialely without affecting their colours or
unduly hardening them. The mostcommonly and widely used kiling agent is
the cyanide, especially potassium cyanide because it s least ikely to
deliquesce. Some times Ethyl acelaté or Chlorolorm is also used for this
purpose.

(JPreservation of Collected Materials: The basic rule is to preserve

specimens in such a way as to make them least subject to any kind of
deterioration or bleaching by sun light, dying out, prolein, decay etc. Agood
preserved specimen is stillin salisfactory condition even afer more than 200
years of their collection,. As more and more species are becoming extinc, for
the problem 'pemanen' preservations are becoming increasingly important.
Some recently suggested melhods such as embedding in plastics, are too
new to pemit predictions.

QData Recording: Both the preserved and live animals must bear collection
dala. Aspecimen without dala is completely useless for a taxonomist. The
collecled preserved specimens, either dried or submersed in alcohol etc must
not be without the actual data. Thus every specimen in the collection must be
labeled containing the foloing data:
1.Sample Number
2. Dale
3. Geographic localily
4. Stratiographic position (for fossil)
5.Altitude or depth (for aquatic animal)
6. Slage (adult, moth, or immature form)
7. Sex (male or female)
8. Size
9. Host
10. Name of collector
5) Curating of collections: Once the animals are colleced, labelled and
preserved, the next important job is of their safe custody, cataloguing, etc.
Curating is a very inportar1l lask for a taxonomist. His primary responsibility
is to preserve the collection, to accumulale, maintain and conserve a
documented record of his colection and lamily to publish the journal about
the information.
 a) Housing:
Researchers collatrors shaujbe houcad ko reset triec in fre
buidings that are reasonaby dust proof Museums keep heir collections in air
Conditioned buildings Phalographs any fms shoud be stored in ár
conditioned rooms Storage causes for specmens shod be build suficiently
wel to be insed proof and teay, atso dst proof. Insed prool museum cases
reduce the tabourcostof curng

() Cataloging:
The method of cataloging depends on he group of animals. All specimens
collected at a given localty or distict or by one expeftion are entered in the'
catalog together. Cataloging is usually done after the specimers have been
identifed at least as per as the genus cataloging enire of verebrates uSually
contain the following infornation:
1.Consecutive museum numbers
2.Original field number
3. Scientific name
4 . Sex
5. Eract locality
/6. Date of collecting
7. Name of collector
,8. Remarks.

Arrangement of Specimens:
(c) collecded specimers shoud preferable be arranged according b the
The
accepted dassificaion. It is also necessary for he aurators to see that the
sequence of orders and families is standardized in many groups of animals.
The unidentified colledion should be kept separately. I their genera or
families are known, the specimens should be kepl separalely along with them.

ldentification:
Th¿ purpose ofldentificalon is basicaly to determine what kindof organisma
given specimen is. After he animals are collected they are frst sorted out and
at least tentatively identfied up to order, family or il possble generic level.
When thís is done, the collection is ready to be studed by the specialist for
precise identification. There are several different methods emoloyed for
identifying an organism. Surprisingly all the methods are based on caparison.
The important methods used in identification are menboned bellow:.
1. From literature
2. Key
3. Pictures
4. Direct comparison
5. Combination of different methods.
 moi
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An therua myita 4/512017
Atoxomomic Vay, n of tha most vseful ce tooavobb to sojenhst
Taxonomic Key
Akey is es
sentially a
information regarding! pinted
a information-retrandievalfromsystemwhichinlo which one puts
identification
! is a
of specimen. specimen-in-hand he/she gels an
labulation of dignostic characters of
dichotomous
facilitate couplets
the identificationfacilitating rapid identification.species or genera in
lts main purpose
of specimen. Keys is to
anaBysis when in the preparation, one are also a tool for
taxonomic
taxonomic characters. In this must select, evaluate and
procedure as well as means ofsense, keys are an integral arrange
part of taxonomic
Types of Keys: presenting findings.
Several different kinds of keys are
dichotomous and based used in laxonornic papers. All
on a are
important ones are discUssd below:series of choices. Some of the most
O Indented key
Simple non-bracket key
) Simple bracket key
Grouped type key
6
Combination key
Pictorial key
0 Branching key
iU BOx ype key
9) Circular key

a Indentedkey
The couplets in this key are indented from the
such a way as to show their importance. Thus, theleft-hand margin of the page, in
two or
primary couplets are near the left hand margin, the more members of the
indented after leaving four or five spaces, the tertiary secondary cOuplet is
spaces beyond the secondary and soon, to the end of thewith key.
equal number of
This type of key
is advantageous in the sense that the
relationship of various divisions is quite
apparent to the eye and can be used in reverse also. When
works alright. But in long keys, the alternatives get widely the key is short it
more space. Thus, it serves good purpose for keys separated and take
lo higher taxa or
comparative keys. An example of such atype of key is given below:
AWings tnostiyhiyalthé
B. Coastal band dilated apically
C. Scutellar bristles 1 pair. .Dacus cucurbitae
CC. Scutellar bristles 2pairs .D. tau
BB. Coastal band not dilaled apicaly
C. Thorax with median yellow stripe ...D. diversus
CC. Thorax without middle stripe....D. dorsalis
AA. Wings mostly opaque
B. Wings with stripes
C. Scutelium with 5 black spots
.Carpomyia vesuviana
CC. Scutellum with 4 black spots....C. zizyphae
BB. Wings reticulate
C.Posterior margin of wings with 3 hyaline spots..Tephraciura zanthotricha
CC. Posterior marainof wings with 5hyaline spals..
Soalhulira acroleuca
 Simple Non-bracket key
or ready comparison.
In this key the couplets are composed of alternatives his
The specimens to be identfhed can run through key forward. An
example of this type of tey is given below.
2
1. Wings mostly hyaline. 6
Wings mostly opaque
2 Coastal band dilated apically 4
Coastal band nof dilated apically Dacus cuUCurbilae
3. Scutellar bristles 1 pair D. tau
Scutellar bristles 2 pair
D. diversUs
Thorax with median yellow stripe D. dorsalis
Thorax without rmedian stripe 6
5. Wings with stripes. 7
Wings reticulate
Carpomyia vesuviana
6. Scutellum with5 black spots.... C. zizyphae
Scutllum with 4 black spots ... spotsTephraciura xanthotricha
7. Posterior margin df wings with 3 hyaline spots .Spathulina acroleuca
Posterior margin df wings with 5 hyaline

Simple Bracket Key

that the numbers of the couplets
K is similar to the preceding one except parenheses after the main
showing the continuation in the key are shown in and easily run through
numbers. When properly constructed one can quickly key, fulflling its diagnostic
this key both forward and backward. This is bestpresent day taxonomists. A
purpose. This is a commonly used key by the below:
similar example of this type of key is given
2
1. Wings mostly hyaline. 5
Wings mosty opaque.
2. (1) Coastal band dilated apically 4
Coastal band not dilated apically.
.Dacus cucurbitae
3. (2) Scutellar bristles 1 pair ..D.tau
Scutellar bristles 2 pair
D.diversusS
4. (2) Thorax with medan yellow stripe. D. dorsalis
Thorax without median stripe
6
5. (1) Wings with stripes..
7
Wings reticulate.
6. (5) Scutellum with 5 black spots .Carpomyia vesuviana
Scutellum with 4 black spots ...
C. izyphae
7. (5) Posterior margin of wings with 3hyaline spots. Tephraciura xanthoticha
Posterior margin of wingswith 5hyaline spols.. .pathulina acroleuca
 iv) Groupedtype preceding
Key one. In this the first member of the primary
is simiar to the
coupled is set up, and the secondary, teriary, and subsequent couplets are
arranged beneath it and labelled 2, 3, 4 to the end of the frst member of the
primary couplet The second member of the primary couplet is then labelled 8,
for example, and the secondary. tertiary, and subsequent couplets are
numbered in sequence under The first pimay cuple is then labelled 1,
with 8 in parentheses, lo indicate the location of the second menber of the
cOupled, the frst secondary is labelled 2, with a 4 and 6 in parentheses,and
the teriary couplet is labeled 3 and,6 and 7 in parentheses. Many other
schemes of numbering the couplets may be used.
Such a key has the advantage that the groups are conspicuous t is
economical of space as the entire printed page is used, and t is fairy easy to
Use in reverse. lts conspicuous difficulty is the fact that he members of the
couplet are too far separated on the printed page to be easy lo use and yet if
one pays dose attention to the numbers of the oposite members of the
couplet this leads to no seríous dificulty. In this kind of key it is possible to
confuse the numbers used to designate the couplets and so one should be
cautious atbout this.

Grouped-type Key: Example

1 (8) Wings mosty hyaline

2. (4,5). Coastal band diated apically
3. (6.7) Coastal band not dilated apically .Dacus cucurbitae
4 Scutellar bristles 1pait .
5 Scutellar bristles 2 pair .... ...D. tau
6. Thorax with median yelow stripe .D. diversUS
7 Thorax without median stripe .D. dors alis
8. (9) Wings mostly opaque
9. (11, 12) Wings stripped
10. (13, 14) Wings reticulate
11. Scutellum with 5 black spots ...Carpomyia vesuviana
12. Scutelum with 4 black spols .C. zizyphae
13. PosteDor margin of wings with 3hyaline spots Tephraciuraxanthoticha
14. Posteior margin of wings with 5hyaline spols .Spathuina acroleuca
) Combination key

These keys contain the good points of both the indented key and those of
either the key with couplets in simple non-bracket key or of the groped
type key. If the combination key is long, the primary, secondary and tertiary
Couplets would be set as in the indented type, thus couplets Aand AA
would be set up near the left hand margin. Under Awould be arranged,
properly indented, couplets Band BB. Under B, if necessary, couplets C
and CC, and so on for the other primary, secondary and tertiary couplets.
Under Cand CC, the couplets would be either in juxtaposition or grouped.
This key has the advantage of making the primary, secondary and tertiary
groups conspicuous. I the couplets beyond those of tertiary rank are
aranged in juxtapostion, it brings these minor differences close together
some of
so that they may be readily compared. Such a key has, of course, with the
the dificulties and limitations of the indented key and also of key
Couplets in simple non-bracket key.

Combination key: Examples

A Wings mostly hyaline
B. Coastal band dilated apically
1. Sautellar bristles 1 pair ...Dacus CUCurbitae
2. Scutellar bristles 2 pair. .D. tau
BB. Coastal band not dilated apically
D. diversus
1 Thorax with median yelow stripe .
2'. Thorax without median stripe .D. dorsalis

AA. Wings mostly opaque

B. Wings with stripes
1 Scutellum with 6 black spots .Carpormyia vesuviana
2'. Scutellum with 4 black spots C. zizyphae
BB. Wings reticulate
1 Posterior margin of wings with 3 hyaline spots. Tephraciura xanthotricha
2. Posterior margin of wings with 5 hyaline spots.Spathulina acroleuca
 Pictorial Key
This key is also of significance.Itis especialy meant for fheld workers, and
non-taxonomists who can identify the commonly occurring species with the
help of characters together with their figures in a comparafive manner. There
are several such keys for various groups of animals.
) Branching type Key
This is also meant for easy and quick separation of the species as far as the
group is small. It is quite useful for field workers.

Dac Derus Copog is Dec Cerpomia

direryut tiyphet
Tgrociers Spodine
Jnit e 2 pairs ef Thorts eitb No gello me Seutelum wit Szutellut wih Nhotris #crslaes
Post asfis of Post-reig of
brittles bistles yellow me- tisn thorscic 3 blt spnts 4 ack sgots wist h
en seute! o utel in strins eing it
Tom 3 byaline spots Shyalie spos

Costal band Wings with

dibted apicaly apicaly Wiogs reticuute
stripes

Wings mostly Wings aott

hyalioe
Fis Dranching-495e kes.

in) Box-ype Key

Lke the preceding two keys it is also meant for field workers and quit
useful for quick identification of most common-species.

D. D. D. C. S.
Cackrhitae diersus dersalis. ! veSyiona Anhetric vleuca
Suleihr Scutellar Thonz witlh Tiorax with Scutellum Scutellu Fosterior terior
bristles ons bristles (w medlan out medlan wilä.lve writth four. mrgin of
Nir palrs stelpe tripe black bisçk ding with wiog wi
spots spot1 Jhyaluse
spots
S \yaliue
spolz

Cosal band Costal bard Win wih Wiags

dilated narros triFcs retculate

Wings moily byaliae Wings molly opuque

Fis Box-ype Key.
ix) Circular Key.
This key is alsomeant for smallgroup. It is also quite useful for the non
specialists, especially field workers who want quick and immediate identification
of commonly occurring important species.

meATranorasyetowiw
bristies
or
scutRlum

Costa Sie n
Wings nczt1y
matgn
sterier Sbathuti

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