Simplify: 8 = 3 152 8 56 Substitute: 8 = 3 152 8 (208 1 152) Simplify: 8 = -8 208 + 11 152 Substitute: 8 = -8 208 + 11 (568 2 208) Simplify: 8 = 11 568

fy: 8 = 11 568 30 208 Thus, x = 11 and y = 30. The questions which arise are: Are there more solutions? How do we find solutions when the RHS is a multiple of d? The general solution of ax + by = c is based on the solution of ax + by = d found by using the method above. Let us call the solution values xd and yd, ie xd = 11 and yd = 30 in this case. The general solution of ax + by = c is given by the formulae: c b c a x = xd t , y = y d + t , where t Z d d d d
Find the general solution of 6x 15y = 27 First apply Euclids algorithm to 6 and 15: -15 = -3 6 + 3 6=23 So gcd(6, -15) = 3 and, since 3|27, there will be solutions. There is only one step to reverse, and this gives 3 6 1 15 = 3. So we have a = 6, b = -15, d = 3, c = 27, xd = 3 and yd = 1. The general solution will be:

This procedure is called Euclids extended algorithm

In other words, different values of t will give different solutions.

Note that you could divide through by 3 first, but with large values of a,b and c, this may not be obvious.

27 ( 15) 27 6 x= 3 t = 27 + 5t , y = 1 + t = 9 + 2t 3 3 3 3 If t = 0, we have x = 27 and y = 9 If t = 1, we have x = 32 and y =11 If t = -1, we have x = 22 and y = 7 You might like to check that these solutions work. Solutions may be subject to constraints for example, if all the solutions had to be positive, work out what constraints that would place on t.
Practice questions: 1. If a|b and b|c, a, b, c Z , prove that a|c. 2. Write the following numbers as the product of their prime factors: 30, 32, 38, 111, 120. 3. Use prime factorisations to find gcd(92, 120) and lcm(18, 60). 4. Use Euclids algorithm to calculate gcd(352, 1540) . 5. Prove that 8n + 3 and 5n + 2, n , are relatively prime. 6. Prove that gcd(a, a + b) = gcd(a, b) 7. Find the general solution of the equation 3x + 4y = 1 given that x,y Z and |x|,|y| < 50. Answers: 1. b = pa, c= qb (p,q Z ). So c = qb = qpa, thus a|c. 2. 2 3 5, 25, 2 19, 3 37, 23 3 5 3. 4, 180 4. 44 5. 8n + 3 = 1 (5n + 2) + (3n + 1), 5n + 2 = 1 (3n + 1) + (2n + 1), 3n + 1 = 1 (2n + 1) + n, 2n + 1 = 2 (n ) + 1 Thus gcd = 1 and 8n + 3 and 5n + 2 are relatively prime 6. If d = gcd(a,b), then for some p,q Z a = pd and b = qd. Thus a + b = pd + qd = d(p + q). So d|a and d|(a + b). p and q are relatively prime, so p and p + q are as well. So there is no higher common divisor than d. Thus gcd(a, a + b) = gcd(a, b) 7. x = -1 4t, y = 1 + 3t, t Z such that t < 12

Be very careful to put minus signs in all the right places.

t > -4

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There are some further formulae for planar graphs which you are required to know.
For a connected planar simple graph with n (>2) vertices and e edges, e 3n 6. For a connected planar simple graph with n vertices and e edges, e 2n 4. A connected planar simple graph will have at least one vertex of degree 5 or less.

Note that the graphs must be simple (no loops or multiple edges). The proofs of the first two theorems are on page 15. For the third, consider that every vertex in the graph does have degree 6 or more. It follows that 2e 6n, hence e 3n. But e 3n 6, leading to a contradiction.

The converses of these theorems are not true: for example, a graph with a degree 3 vertex is not necessarily planar. However, if it does not have at least one vertex of degree 5 or less, it cannot be planar. Try using the first theorem to show that K5 is not planar, and the second to show K3,3 is not planar. What happens if you try these proofs the other way around?
Isomorphism: The famous schematic map of the London Underground railways is not a map in the sense that it shows distances and directions. But in terms of the relationships between the stations (for example, their order on a particular line), and where lines intersect, the schematic map is exactly the same as the true map. The two maps are isomorphic to each other. Basically the connectivity of two isomorphic graphs is the same. Clearly, they must have the same number of vertices of each order: in addition, they must be connected together in the same manner.

Below are 10 letters of the alphabet, drawn as connected graphs. Which ones are isomorphic to each other?

ADHKLRSTUY
Why are the two graphs below not isomorphic? Show how moving one edge on the second graph can make them isomorphic.
B A E F C D Q S T P R U

Answers: A and R. U and S. Y and T. H and K.

Each has 6 vertices, 9 edges and 5 faces. However, the first graph has vertices of order 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4 whereas the second graph has vertices of order 2, 2, 2, 4, 4, 4. So the connectivity is different and the graphs are not isomorphic. One of the vertices of order 4 must become order 3 as must one of the vertices of order 2. I began by imagining the second graph rotated anticlockwise through 90 so that PQR becomes AEB. A bit of trial and error, and the isomorphism is achieved by disconnecting edge UR and reconnecting as US. The points then correspond as follows: A P, B R, C T, D U, E Q, F S.

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