3.

Sub-Structure and Superstructure Works

Site Exploration
 Site exploration is the process of investigating the physical properties of the soil,
rock, groundwater, and other subsurface conditions at a construction site before
designing and building any structure.
 It is a crucial step in civil engineering and geotechnical engineering to ensure the
safety, stability, and suitability of the proposed structure.
Objectives of Site Exploration:
1. Determine soil bearing capacity for foundation design.
2. Identify soil and rock strata and their properties.
3. Detect groundwater level and flow conditions.
4. Assess soil behavior under load (compressibility, shear strength, etc.).
5. Locate problematic soil layers, such as expansive clay or collapsible soils.

Methods of Site Exploration:

1. Boring and drilling (e.g., auger boring, rotary drilling)
2. Test pits and trenches
3. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
4. Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
5. Geophysical methods (e.g., seismic refraction, electrical resistivity)
Site Exploration

Site exploration is the process of investigating the physical properties of the soil,
rock, groundwater, and other subsurface conditions at a construction site before
designing and building any structure. It is a crucial step in civil engineering and
geotechnical engineering to ensure the safety, stability, and suitability of the
proposed structure.
Objectives of Site Exploration:
1.Determine soil bearing capacity for foundation design.
2.Identify soil and rock strata and their properties.
3.Detect groundwater level and flow conditions.
4.Assess soil behavior under load (compressibility, shear strength, etc.).
5.Locate problematic soil layers, such as expansive clay or collapsible soils.
Soil Exploration or Site Investigation:
• The process of extracting the overall information of the soil by performing various
tests is called soil exploration.
• The main objective of soil exploration is to extract adequate info. about the type and
nature of soil at different depths for designing safe, sound and economical
foundation.

Purposes of Soil Exploration:

• To find out the safe bearing capacity of soil
• To select the most economical type of foundation
• To fix the depth of proposed foundation
• To predict the chances of settlement of foundation and make allowance for that
in design
• To know the underground water level
• To know the suitability of soil and degree of compaction
Methods of Site Exploration:
1. Inspection of site
Following information can be obtained from inspection of site:-
• Hard, soft, water logged area.
• Classification of soil by visual examination such as gravel, sand, clay.
• Drainage condition, GWT sites
• Unstable sites, slopes, etc.
2. Probing
• A steel bar of 25-40 mm in dia. is hammered into the soil until the hard sub-
surface is met.
• Then the nature of the soil sticking to the sides of the bar is observed.
3. Test Pit
• Holes dug for the entry of a person so that he/she can inspect the soil is called test
pits.
• Square in plan with depth up to 3m.
4. Boring
• Soil sample at different depths are taken out and laboratory test are carried
out to find the soil characteristics.
i. Auger boring upto 15m depth
ii. Auger and shell boring upto 50m depth.
iii. Wash boring for >3m.
iv. Percussion boring for soils having boulders.
v. Rotary boring Hard rock and for undisturbed samples.
1. Geo-physical Methodlarge and important areas
i. Seismic refraction method
ii. Electrical Resistivity
Wash boring
Bearing Capacity:
• Bearing capacity of soil refers to its ability to support a load without failing or
experiencing excessive settlement.
• Maximum load per unit area which the soil carries without yielding .

Process to improve the bearing capacity of a soil are:

1. By increasing the depth of foundation
2. By undergoing proper compaction
3. By providing sub-surface drainage
4. By treating the soil chemically
5. By grouting
Load Test:
• Determines two parameters;
a. Ultimate bearing capacity of a soil
b. Likely settlement

Procedure:
• Excavation depth >4bp
• Load is applied via hydraulic
jack
• Settlement are recorded from
a gauge attached
• Load increment= 1/5th bearing
capacity
• Settlements are observed for
each increment of load after an
interval of 1, 4, 10, 20, 40 & 60 min.
& hourly interval onward till settlement
rate is < 0.2mm/hr.
3.2 Foundation and its type:
• Lowest part of a structure that transmits load to the ground.
• Also called the sub-structure of a building.

Types:
1. Shallow Foundation
• Depth of foundation <= width
• Spread, Combined, Strap, Continuous and Mat foundation are types of shallow
foundation.
2. Deep Foundation
• Pile Foundation
• Pier Foundation Sandy soil/ soft soil
• Well Foundation Under water
Mat foundation

Combined footing
 Well foundation

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=s6E2t_kW57M

Pile Foundation
2.3 Earthwork excavation of foundations (soft soil, hard
rock and wet excavation)

Site Clearance
• Process of clearing the site so that it does not obstruct in the future while
working.
• Includes removal of top soil, busters and trees and demolition of present
structure.

Conventional Equipments are:

• Spade
• Pick axe
• Rammer
• Kassi
• Cane basket
 Pick axe

Kassi
Excavation in soft soil:

• First of all, trenches are made as required.

• Then the poling boards are placed closer say 90cm apart and held by wailings.
Excavation in hard soil:
• First of all, trenches are made as required.
• If the depth is more than 1.5m, then the hard soil should be shored and timbered.
Excavation in Wet areas:
• Wet areas includes water logged area and area where GWT is significantly at higher
level.
• Different methods for excavating in such places are:
1. By Constructing drain
• Suitable for shallow foundation
• Drains are constructed that collects water from the sides and conveys water into a
shallow pit.
• The water is then pumped out.
• Cheapest method.
2. By Constructing Deep Well
• Suitable in those places where there is large amount of water to be drained and for
depth of excavation up to 24m.
• 30-60 cm dia. wells are constructed at 6-15m all around the site .
• The water gets collected into the wells and finally it is pumped out.
3. Well point system
• Pipe wells of 40mm in dia. are driven vertically into the ground.
• All pipe wells are connected to another horizontal pipe that pumps the water present
in the pipe wells.
4. Vacuum Method
• Used in those places where there is fine grained soil.
• A hole of 25 cm in dia. is created around the well point and water is jetted into it
under pressure.
• While jetting the water, the sand flows upward to fill the hole.
• The top portion is then sealed.
• Now, vacuum pumps are used to create –ve
pressure inside so that atmospheric pressure
squeezes out the water.
5. By Chemical Consolidation
• Used in soft water logged area.
• Chemicals like silicates of soda and calcium chloride are forced into the
soil.
• Soft soil gets converted into semi solid mass.

6. Freezing Process
• Suitable for excavation in water logged soils like sand gravel and silt.
• Not suitable for deep excavation.
• Freezing pipes are inserted around the excavated area.
• Freezing liquid is then supplied by refrigerator plant.
• Now, the ground around the pipes start to freeze forming a thick frozen
earth.
• The water around the frozen earth cannot penetrate inside.
• Finally, excavation is carried out.
7. Electro-osmosis
• Through this Method, the Earth is Stabilized by Passing a Direct Current Through
Electrodes Placed Inside the Ground to the Excavated Trenches.
• Two Electrodes are Driven into the Saturated Cohesive Soils.
• Anode and cathode are made into the ground.
• When direct current is passed, water shall start moving in the direction of current.
• Positive ions will move in the direction of current and free water being dragged
towards the negative electrodes where the water shall accumulate and finally flow
out.
2.4 Excavation of trenches for pipes, cables, etc. and refilling
works
• Width of trench not greater than 1.5m. or 10 sq. m. in plan and to any depth.
• Refilling with the same excavated material is done and the disposal of surplus soil is made
up to 50m.
• Depending upon the depth of excavation, no. of pipes and type of soil, the width of trench
varies.
1. Up to 1m depth, the authorized width of trench for excavation shall be taken as external
dia. plus 25cm. When a pipe is laid on concrete bed, the width shall be the external dia. of
pipe plus 25cm or the width of concrete bed, whichever is more.
2. For depth >1m, an allowance of 5cm/m of depth for each side of the trench shall be added
to the authorized width which is given throughout the depth.
3. In firm soils, the sides of the trenches shall be kept vertical up to the depth of 2m from the
bottom. For depth>2m, the excavation width is made broader with respect to the depth.
4. For loose, slushy and soft soil, the width shall be suitably increased and if necessary,
shoring is done.
2.5 Some common problems with existing foundation

1. Settlement
2. Bearing capacity failure
• Sub-soil characteristics
• Ground water condition
• Termite action
 Stone masonry and its types

When stones are used as the building units or

building blocks, it is known as stone masonry.
Stone masonry can be classified as:
o Rubble masonry
o Ashlar masonry
 TYPES OF STONE MASONRY
ASHLAR MASONRY
RUBBLE MASONRY 1. Ashlar Fine tooled
1. Random rubble masonry Masonry
• Uncoursed 2. Ashlar Rough tooled
• Built – in – courses Masonry
2. Square rubble masonry 3. Ashlar Rock or quarry
• Uncoursed faced Masonry
• Built – in – courses 4. Ashlar Chamfered
3. Miscellaneous types - Masonry
Polygon walling
4. Dry rubble masonry
5. Ashlar Block in
Course Masonry
6. Ashlar facing
 Rubble Masonry and its types
 Stones of irregular sizes are used
 Blocks of stones are used either undressed or roughly dressed.
 Has wide joints
 Roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry.
 There is no uniform thickness in the joints
 Stones, as obtained from quarry, are taken in use in the same
form or they are broken and shaped in suitable sizes by means
of hammer as the work proceeds.
 Strength of rubble masonry depends on:
 Quality of mortar
 Use of long through stones at frequent intervals
 Proper filling of the mortar between the spaces of stones
 Types of rubble masonry:

1. Random rubble masonry:

It can be classified as Uncoursed and Built to courses masonry.
a) Random rubble - Uncoursed masonry
 Stones are laid without forming courses.
 Used stones are of different sizes.
 Used for construction of walls of low height.
b) Random rubble - Built to courses
 Stones are laid in layers of equal height.
 Hammer dressed stones are used.
 Used for construction of residential buildings, boundary
walls, etc.
S
2. Square rubble masonry
Face stones are squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing
before their actual laying.
It can be classified as Uncoursed and Built to courses.
a) Square rubble-uncoursed
 Hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses.
 Stones are of different sizes.
 Used for the construction of buildings in hilly areas where
stones are cheapy available.
b) Square rubble-built to courses
 Stones are laid in courses of equal layer.
 Used for the construction of public buildings, hospital,
schools, etc. where good quality of stone is easily available.
3. Miscellaneous types -
Polygon walling
 The stones are hammer
finished on face to an
irregular polygon shape.
 Stones are bedded in position
so that joints runs irregularly
in all directions.
 More skill is required
 As the stones are of irregular
shape, it is difficult to adjust
them with regard to stability
and appearance of the work
as a whole.
 4. Dry rubble masonry
 Mortar is not used.
 Cheapest but requires more
skills for construction.
 Used for constructing walls
of height not more than 6m.
 In order to prevent
displacement of stones and
to make the work more
stable, two courses at top
and about 500mm length at
the ends are sometimes built
in mortar.
 ASHLAR MASONRY AND ITS TYPES

 Consists of blocks of accurately dressed stones with extremely

fine bed and end joints.
 Square or rectangular blocks of stones are used
 Height of stone varies from 25 to 30cm.
 Height of blocks in each courses is kept equal.
 Costly type of masonry.
 Used for heavy construction like abutments of bridges, high
piers, etc.
Types of ashlar masonry
a) Ashlar Fine tooled Masonry:
 Finest type of stone masonry work.
 Each stone is cut to regular and required shape and sizes.
 Regular coursed and random coursed are its type.
 Gives smooth appearance, with perfectly vertical and
horizontal joints with adjoining stone.
 But costly in construction
b) Ashlar Rough tooled Masonry :
 Beds and sides of each stone block are
finely chisel dressed but the face is
made rough by means of tools
 Thickness of joints are uniform, that
does not exceed 6mm.

c) Ashlar Rock or quarry faced Masonry :

 Same as rough tooled except that there
is chisel-drafted margin left rough on
the face.
 A strip of about 25 mm wide & made
by means of chisel is provided around
the perimeter of every stone exposed
for view as in case of Rough tooled
Ashlar
 But the remaining part of the face is
left as in the same form as received
from quarry.
d) Ashlar Chamfered Masonry :
 Exposed face is chambered at an angle of 45˚ by the
means of a chisel to a depth of 25mm or more.
e) Ashlar Block in Course
Masonry :
 Is intermediate between
rubble masonry and ashlar
masonry.
 The facework is provided
with rough tooled or hammer
dressed stones and backing
of the wall may be in rubble
masonry
 Depth of courses vary from
20 to 30 cm
 Used for heavy engineering works such as retaining walls. Also
may be used for theatres, railway stations, temples, bridges,
public buildings, etc.
f) Ashlar facing:
 Is provided along with brick or concrete block
masonry.
 Stones are provided in face work only
 Gives better appearance and are very expensive.
 Sides and beds of each block are properly dressed.
 Exposed faces of the stones are rough tooled and
chamfered.
Composite Masonry

 Built using two or more types of masonry units (e.g., brick + concrete

block).

 Used to combine strength, insulation, and aesthetics.

 Usually includes:

 Backing wall (e.g., concrete block for strength).

 Facing wall (e.g., stone or brick for appearance).

 Improves thermal resistance and reduces material usage.

 Can reduce construction costs while increasing performance.

Hollow Block

 Employs hollow concrete blocks with cavities.

 Advantages: Lightweight, better insulation, and faster
construction.
 Suitable for non-load-bearing walls and partitions.

Hollow Block
Autoclaved Aerated Cement (AAC) Block Masonry:

 Lightweight, precast building material.

 Composed of quartz sand, gypsum, lime, cement, water,
and aluminum powder.
 Advantages: Thermal insulation, fire resistance, and
ease of installation.
 Used in both load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls.
Compressed Stabilized Earth Block (CSEB) Masonry:

 Made from a mix of soil, sand, a stabilizer (like

cement or lime), and water.
 Compressed in a machine to form blocks.
 Eco-friendly and cost-effective.
 Suitable for low-rise buildings and sustainable
construction.
Cavity Wall:

 Consists of two parallel walls (inner and outer) with a

cavity between them.
 Improves thermal insulation and prevents moisture
penetration.
 Commonly used in residential buildings in cold climates
Concrete 3D Printing:
 Innovative construction method using 3D printing
technology to create concrete structures.
 Advantages: Reduced labor, faster construction, and
design flexibility.
 Applications include housing, bridges, and
architectural components.

Concrete 3D Printer
Plastering: Plastering is the process of covering rough surface of
walls, column, ceiling and other components of building with a thin
coat of mortar to get smooth durable surface. Plastering hide defective
workmanship.
 Plaster is the finishing work that gives even, smooth, regular and
clean surface on wall, ceiling, floor, roof and other parts of the
building.
 Often plastering is required to provide a satisfactory base for
decorating the surface by white-washing, color washing, painting,
etc.

57
Objective of plastering:
 To protect the external surface against penetration of rain water.
 To protect surface against atmospheric agents.
 To conceal inferior materials and defective workmanship.
 To develop decorative effect and improve appearance.
Requirements of good plaster:
 It should attach to the background and remain during all
variation in seasons.
 It should be hard and durable.
 It should possess good workability.
 It should be possible to apply in all weather conditions.
 It should be cheap.
 It should check moisture penetration.

58
Types of plasters
1. Lime plaster (lime, sand, water)
2. Cement plaster (cement, sand, water)
3. Mud plaster (earth, optional sand, straw
and water.)
4. Surkhi plaster (surkhi, sand, water)
5. Bajra plaster (dal, lime, earth, water)

59
Method of plastering
1. Preparation of surface background
2. Application of rendering coat
3. Application of final coat
Preparation of surface background
 Before plastering, the mortar joints should be raked to a depth of 10-15mm so
that the plaster can easily catch to the wall.
 All dust should be removed from wall by using stiff wire brush.
 Any uneven should be removed for easy plastering.
 The wall should be uniformly wet before plastering.
 After that dots are placed of the interval of 2m×2m with the equal level or
thickness of about generally 12mm.
 This type of dots are provided on the wall where plastering operation being
operating.
 After that the whole wall is cover by plaster by the help of gauging
tool(trowel), float and floating rule.

60
Defects in plaster work:
1. Cracking
2. Efflorescence: whitish crystalline substance, presence of
salt in plaster making materials
3. Blistering: formation of small patches of plaster swelling
out beyond the plaster surface and making due to improper
slaking of lime particles in the plaster.
4. Falling out of plastering
5. Flaking- formation of very loose mass of plastered surface
due to poor bond between successive coat

61
62
 Pointing

 It is the process of treatment of joints in the masonry works.

 The joints are the weakest points for giving access to rainwater or
damp in exposed brick and stone masonry & joints are to be
treated properly.
 Pointing is the process of raking and applying rich mortar
with desired finishing in the joints of masonry.
 It is preferable when the joint has not completed final setting time
(in plastic state). It is easy to rake and apply mortar in this
condition.
 The mortar used in pointing should be richer than masonry
mortar.

63
Pointing

64
Purpose of pointing
1. Protecting joints from adverse effect of atmosphere.
2. Give better appearance.
3. Economy to plaster.
4. Preventing entry of water in to wall through joints.

Pointing procedure
1. Joints are raked to 10 mm depth.
2. Raked joints are cleaned by using brushes.
3. Joints are kept wet for few hours.
4. Mortar is applied on the joints by means of small trowel.
5. Applied mortar is given the shape of desired type of pointing.
6. Curing is done for 3-10 days.

65
66
Old brickwork with broken and
missing mortar in joints

67
 Rake out old joints to Raked joints are cleaned by
10mm minimum using brushes.

Mixing up mortar for new joints

Filling joints with new mortar
68
Types of pointing
Beaded pointing - steel rod of
suitable size giving groove is applied
on joint, good appearance.
Flush pointing - raked joint is filled
with mortar and leveled.
Struck/cut pointing - mortar is
pressed in joint such that upper side is
more pressed.
V-grooved pointing - steel rod is
used to form V-groove.
Tuck-pointing - mortar is flushed to
joints, mortar is cut to form raised
ruler outside.

69
Types of pointing

Keyed/grooved pointing - steel rod of 6mm

dia. Used to form circular groove.
Recessed pointing - mortar is pressed inside of
joint by 6 mm by suitable tool.
Weathered (V) pointing - V-shaped projection
of mortar in joints.
Ruler pointing – mortar is raised in the joint.

70
Types of pointing

Beaded Flush Struck Tuck

V-Shaped

Grooved Recessed Weathered Ruler

71
72
 9.4 Paints and Painting works

 Definition of paint and its constituents

 Types of paints
 Painting work in wood (old wood and new
wood)
 Painting work in metal
 Painting work in masonry surfaces

73
9.4 Paints and Painting works
Paints
It is the liquid material applied on timber, metal or masonry surfaces.
It acts as protective or decorative on applied surface.
It is composed of two main components; pigment and organic binders.
Constituents of oil paint
Base - The base of a paint is a solid substance that forms the bulk of the paint and
gives it its character. Metallic oxide in the form of powder, chief ingredient of
paint, keep surface opaque (fine powder of white lead , red lead, zinc oxide
iron oxide etc.
Extender or inert filler - cheap pigment for volume. additives in paint that
modify its properties, such as texture, gloss, drying time, and opacity
Pigment for color - mixed to give desired color

74
9.4 Paints and Painting works
Vehicle - The vehicle in paint is a liquid that carries the pigment and binder in paint, and
holds the pigment particles together without dissolving them. The vehicle also acts as a
binder to adhere the pigments to the surface being painted
a. Water-based acrylic: The vehicle is water.
b. Oil paint: The vehicle is usually linseed oil.
c. Tempera: The vehicle is an emulsion, which is a mixture of an aqueous liquid with
an oil, fat, or resin.
d. Watercolor: The vehicle is water and gum arabic, a sticky plant substance that
acts as the binder.
e. Acrylic: The vehicle is synthetic plastic resin.
Thinner or solvent - liquid that makes the paint thin & evaporates after applying paint(
spirit, turpentine)
Drier - material containing metallic compound, accelerates the drying of paint(lead
acetate, manganese dioxide)
Anti Skinning and Plasticizer ( Prevent gelling and minimize cracking)
75
Characteristics of good paint

1. Should stick to the surface & seal the pores thereby.

2. Consistency for easy workability.
3. Adequate thickness of paint for good protection and
decoration of surface.
4. Rapid drying of paint.
5. Paint film be able to stand the adverse weather
effects.
6. Resistance to cracking, flaking etc.
7. Possessing moisture resistance.
8. Giving permanent color.

76
Types of paints

Aluminum paints Used for woodwork and metal surface.

Anticorrosive paints Metal protective paint.
Asbestos paints For patch works in metal roof, it controls
leakage.
Bituminous paints For water proofing on roof and DPC.
Bronze paints For metallic surface.
Cellulose paints Made from celluloid sheets & amyl-acetate
substitutes, superior type of paints. cars and
airplanes
Casein paints Protein substance milk, curd etc.(artist)

77
Types of paints

Cement paints Available in powder form, water is vehicle, used

on masonry surface
Enamel paints Base material-lead, white zinc etc., Vehicle-
varnish
Rubber base Rubber with chlorine gas, applied on cement
paints surfaces. (waterproofing)
Emulsion paints Contains synthetic resins & polyvinyl acetate.
Graphite paints Of black color and used in mines
Plastic paints Plastic in suspension and gives pleasing shades.
Silicate paints Mixing of calcium and silicate with resinous
materials
Luminous paints Mixing calcium sulfide with varnish, it is very
shiny
78
Varnish : It is the clear and pale solution of resinous
substance dissolved in either oil turpentine or alcohol. The
solution on drying forms a hard, transparent glossy film on the
varnish surface.

Importance of varnish
1. The varnish applied on the decorative surfaces
enhances the appearance of the paint.
2. Safeguards the wood work from atmospheric agents.
3. Increases the durability of paint.
79
Types of varnish

Oil varnish Oil & resin dissolved in volatile liquid (takes

24 hours to dry).
Spar varnish Used in spar(pole of ship) & other parts of
ship, weather resistance
Flat varnish Dull appeared varnish, addition of more wax,
metallic soap etc.
Asphalt varnish Dissolving asphalt in linseed oil & gives black
color, used for metal.
Spirit varnish Resin dissolved in volatile liquid (spirit) and
fast to dry, used in wooden furniture.

81
 Painting on wood work
 Painting process on new wood work
 Painting process on old wood work

Painting process on new wood work

1. Preparation of surface
2. Knotting
3. Priming
4. Stopping
5. Second and succeeding coats (under coats)
6. Finishing coat

82
1. Preparation of surface
1. Wood work be properly seasoned.
2. The surface be clean, dry and free from dust.
3. The surface is made smooth by rubbing with
sand /glass paper.

83
2. Knotting : This is the process of sealing the knots (resin
flows from it & destroys paint).
Patent knotting
Applying of one or more coats of Shellac or aluminum
varnish on the knots
Size knotting
Applying of first coat of mixture of red lead in water with
glue and is hot on knots, Applying of second coat of mixture
of red lead in oil thinned with boiled oil & turpentine on
dried first coat
Lime knotting
The knot is covered by hot lime for 14 hours, the lime is
than scrapped off & knot be treated by size knotting

84
3. Priming
The surface is painted by first coat of primer before fixing wood work and
fills all pores on it.
4. Stopping
Nail holes, cracks and open joints are filled up with putty.
It is than rubbed by sand paper to make smooth surface.
The putty used is the chalk powder mixed to linseed oil.
5. Second and succeeding coats (under coats)
First coat of paint with desired color is applied on
priming coat.
If necessary, second coat of paint is than applied after
the first coat is dried.
6. Finishing coat
The last coat of desired colored paint is applied to give
smooth & good surface.
85
Painting on old wood work
1. Preparation of surface
Old painting if blistered & flaked should be completely removed.
 Removing of old paint by blow lamp
 The paint is softened by heat (from blow of lamp).
 Thus softened paint is removed by stripping knife.
 Removing of old paint by paint removers
 Paint removers are available in the market and are applied on
the painted surface.
 The old paint lifts up, wrinkles and can be easily removed by
sharp knife etc.
 Caustic soda solution is also useful for removing old paint. The
solution of caustic soda and water is applied on the surface
and it is made wet for 48 hours.
 Old paint is softens and can be easily scraped off.

86
2. Coating of paint
First coat of desired paint is applied on the clean and smooth surface of
woodwork. If necessary, second coat is also applied.
3. Finishing coat
Final coating is applied to give smooth, uniform and pleasing surface.

Knotting and priming do not required in the painting of old

woodwork. But, the stopping may be required if holes, cracks
and opens are seen on the surface.

87
 Painting on Metal works
 This is the process of prevention of rust in metal works.
Procedure of painting on metal surfaces
1. The scale and rust if any are removed by scrapping or brushing.
2. Oil, grease and dust are removed by washing with petrol,
benzene or limewater.
3. The surface thus clean and dry is treated with phosphoric acid.
This protects the surface from rusting and provides adhesive
surface.
4. Now, the prime coating is done underneath which further 2-3
coats are laid.
5. After the under-coat is dried, final coat of desired type of paint
is applied giving uniform an pleasant surface.

88
Painting works on masonry(existing)
Step 1 - Clean the Surface

 Loose paint has to be removed, make sure that the surface is

clean.
 Any oil or grease on the masonry surface will bleed through the
paint, causing discoloration, and possibly interfering with the
longevity of the paint job.
 Use tri-sodium phosphate, also simply known as TSP, to
clean the concrete surface before applying any product.
 Mix it up in a bucket and scrub it into to the surface with a
scrub brush to remove any grease or oil, ensuring that your
paint will stick well.

89
Step 2 - Make any Repairs
 If there is any major defects in the surface to repair, use a
simple, ready-mix concrete patch to make those repairs after
you clean it.
Step 3 - Seal and Prime
 The sealer is often clear, but keeps moisture from coming
through the concrete. This is especially true in basements,
which tend to hold moisture anyway.

90
If you are not sure whether your basement has been sealed or not, tape all
four sides of a square of plastic kitchen wrap onto the floor and leave it for
24 hours. If the floor hasn't been sealed, you will see condensed water
between the plastic wrap and the floor that has evaporated up through the
concrete.
Use the two step process of sealing and priming to build a strong, water resistant
foundation for your paint.

Step 4 - Paint the Surface

1. After your sealer and primer coats are completely dry, now apply the paint.
2. Apply several thin coats, rather than trying to apply one very thick coat, as
paint actually forms a harder surface when thin coats are laid on top of each
other. One thick coat often results is a gummy or soft surface.
3. This drying thoroughly is often called “curing.” It means that the paint has
dried through all the layers down to the original surface.
4. After your final coat of paint is applied, allow the paint to cure for the
recommended time.

91
Painting on plastered surface

 Preparation of surface.
 Priming coat
 First coat
 Final coat

92
1) Preparation of surface
 Allow freshly plastered surface to mature.
 Repair and correct any water seepage problems. Avoid rusting and leakage from the water
pipe.
 Any holes and cracks are repaired by plaster of paris or by wall putty.
 In old surfaces previous coatings of lime wash/powder distemper/cement paint must be
thoroughly scraped off.
 Fungus affected area must be given separate treatment i.e. 5-10% solution of bleach
powder and water should be applied and left to dry for 8-10 hours.

2) Priming coat of mixture of equal parts of white and red lead in boiled
linseed oil is applied on the surface. Drying time10-12 hours.
3) First coat of desired paint is applied on the surface.
4) Final coat of the desired paint is applied on the dried first coating.

93
94
Frame Structure : Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Structure

1. Precast Construction:
 Concrete elements are cast and cured in a controlled environment.
 Advantages: Quality control, reduced construction time, and
minimal site disruption.
 Common precast elements: Beams, slabs, columns, and wall
panels.
Frame Structure : Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) Structure

2. Cast-in-Situ Construction:
 Concrete is poured and cured on-site within formwork.
 Advantages: Flexibility in design and monolithic construction.
 Commonly used for foundations, slabs, and structural frameworks.

Cast-in-situ
 Formwork
 Formwork or shuttering is a temporary construction used as a mould
for the structure, in which concrete is placed and in which it hardens
and matures.
 Also, formwork is the arrangement of timber planks in the trenches
to prevent the collapsing of soil when the depth of trench is more.
This is also called as timbering.
 The construction of formwork involves considerable expenditure of
time and cost in building work, and even higher in bridges.
 Forms are classified as wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood-
steel, reinforced concrete and plain concrete.
 Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The
disadvantage of wooden formwork is the possibility of warping,
swelling and shrinkage of the timber.
Use of Formworks
Formwork for excavations and trenches.
Formworks for reinforced concrete construction.
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Formworks for excavation and trenches:
Timbering of trenches:
 This is the arrangement of timber planks in the trenches to prevent
collapsing of sides.
 When the depth of trench is large, or when the sub-soil is loose, the
sides of the trench may cave in. The problem can be solved by
adopting a suitable method of timbering.
Why timbering is needed?
 To protect the worker working inside.
 To protect the completed work from being ruined by the falling
debris.
Methods of Timbering
1. Stay bracing
2. Box sheeting
3. Vertical sheeting
4. Runners
5. Sheet piling
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1. Stay Bracing:
• This method is used for supporting the
sides of a trench excavated in fairly
firm soil, when the depth of
excavation does not exceed about 2m.
• The method consists of placing Polling board
vertical sheets or polling boards
opposite each other against the two
walls of the trench and holding them
in position by one or two rows of
struts.
• The sheets are placed at an interval of Strut

2 to 4 meters and generally, they

extend to the full height of the trench.
• The polling boards may have width of
about 200 mm and thickness of 40 to
50 mm.
101
Stay Bracing

102
2. Box sheeting:
• This method is adopted in loose soils, when the depth of
excavation does not exceed 4 m.
• The method consists of vertical sheets placed very near to each
other (sometimes touching each other) and keeping them in
position by longitudinal rows (usually two) of wales.
• Struts are then provided across the wales.
Wale

Vertical sheeting

Box sheeting
103
104
a) In water-logged area:
• Vertical sheeting is provided which are very close to each
other, binding them with horizontal boards called wales.
• Struts are then adjusted against the wales.

105
b) In loose dry soil:
Here, instead of vertical sheeting, horizontal sheeting is provided.
Those horizontal sheeting is supported by vertical wales.
Now, the vertical wales are supported by the struts.
Bracing is done incase the soil is too loose and if the depth of
excavation is more.

106
 3. Vertical sheeting:
• This system is adopted for deep
trenches (up to 10 m depth) in soft
ground.
• The method is similar to the box
sheeting except that the excavation is
carried out in stages and at the end of
each stage, an offset is provided, so
that the width of the trench goes on
decreasing as the depth increases.
• Each stage is limited to about 3 m in
height and the offset may vary from
25 to 50 cm per stage.
• For each stage, separate vertical
sheeting, supported by horizontal
wailings and struts are provided.
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4. Runners
• This system is used in extremely
loose and soft ground, which needs Wale
immediate support as excavation
progresses.
Runner
• The system is similar to vertical
sheeting of box system, except that
in the place of vertical sheeting,
runners (made of long thick wooden Strut

sheets or planks with iron shoe at

the ends) are provided.
Soil to be
• Wales and struts are provided as excavated
usual. These runners are driven
about 30 cm in advance of the Runner
progress of the work, by hammering. system

108
5. Sheet Piling:
 This method is adopted when
(i) soil to be excavated is soft or loose
(ii) depth of excavation is large
(iii) width of trench is also large
(iv) there is sub-soil water.

 Sheet piles are designed to resist lateral earth

pressure.
 These are driven in the ground by mechanical means
(pile driving equipment).
 They can be used for excavating to a very large
depth.

Sheet piling

109
110
Precautions in timbering of trenches
 Possibility of slip of earth
 Testing of timbering elements
 Safety of adjacent structure
 Traffic in the surrounding
 Provision of ladders
 Safety helmet
 Supervision
 First aid box
 Fencing and light

111
Formwork for RCC Construction:

The cost of the formwork used in RCC construction varies from 20-
25% of the cost of concrete work.
Type of formwork
Wooden and Steel

Formwork for:
 Beam
 Slab
 Column

112
Characteristics of a good formwork:
1. Strong enough to withstand load, resist the impact due to
consolidation, and carry the load of the workmen etc.
2. Leakage proof.
3. Perfectly flat and smooth.
4. Cheap and easily available.
5. Reusable.
6. Light in weight.
7. They should be such that erection and dismantling is easily
accomplished.
8. The formwork should be watertight to prevent loss of fine
materials, especially cement slurry, through gaps, which, if
found, should be closed with clay/plaster of Paris, but which
in practice are simply covered by plastic/polythene sheets.
9. Braced rigidly to prevent slippage, sagging etc.
10. Formwork should be clean before pouring.
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Principal requirements
A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Cheap and easily available material
2. Sufficiently rigid
3. Strong enough to resist loads such a dead load of concrete
and live load during its pouring, compaction and curing
4. Easy to strip and erect
5. Strong base support
6. It should be suitable for re-use several times.
7. It should be practically water proof so that it does not absorb
water from concrete. Also, its shrinkage and swelling should
be minimum.
8. It should be as be light as possible.
9. The surface of the formwork should be smooth
10. All joints of the formwork should be stiff so that lateral
deformation under loads is minimum
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Formworks for reinforced concrete construction
Terminology
• Sheathing: Vertical timber plank used on column.
• Yokes: Bracing members to tie up sheathing.
• Wedges: Wooden piece used to tighten various elements of
framework.
• Cleats: Wooden piece fixed to the sides of beam.
• Joists/battens: Wooden member supporting decking.
• Ledgers: Horizontal wooden piece nailed to cleats and form
bearing of joist.
• Bottom sheathing: Bottom plank of beam (thicker).
• Head tree: Horizontal beam connected at top of vertical
post (props) through inclined cleats or beams.

116
 Batten

Formwork for Beam and Slab: Ledger

Sheathing
• The whole system consists of Support for ledger
Cleat
sole plates, wedges, vertical Head Tree
post, head tree, battens, etc.
• Beam formwork rests on head Bracing

tree.
• Slab formwork rests on battens
and joists.
Post
• If the height of the post is more
than 8 feet, horizontal bracing
is needed.
Wedge

Sole plate

Formwork for Beam & Slab 117

118
119
Formwork for Column:
Consists of side and end planks, yoke, bolts, etc.
Two end and two side planks are joined by the yokes and bolts.

120
 Side yoke

Wedge

End yoke

Bolt
Sheathing

Formwork for column

121
122
Formwork for Staircase:
Consists of vertical and inclined posts, inclined members, wooden
planks, riser planks, etc.

123
Formwork for Wall:

124
Steel Construction

 A steel structure is a structural system made primarily of steel components

such as beams, columns, and trusses that are connected through bolted or
welded joints to form a load-bearing framework.
 Due to its high strength-to-weight ratio, steel is extensively used in high-rise
buildings, bridges, industrial sheds, warehouses, and towers.
Steel Construction
Advantages of Steel Construction
1. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Steel provides excellent structural strength with
less material, allowing for lighter structures.
2. Speed of Construction: Prefabricated steel components can be quickly assembled
on-site, reducing construction time.
3. Flexibility in Design: Steel's versatility allows for innovative architectural designs
and long-span structures.
4. Durability: Properly maintained steel structures have a long lifespan and can
withstand various environmental conditions.
5. Recyclability: Steel is 100% recyclable, making it an environmentally friendly
construction material.
6. Ease of Modification: Steel structures can be easily modified or expanded with
minimal disruption.
Steel Construction

Disadvantages of Steel Construction

1. Corrosion Susceptibility: Steel can corrode when exposed to
moisture and chemicals, requiring protective coatings and
maintenance.
2. Fire Resistance: Steel loses strength at high temperatures,
necessitating fireproofing measures.
3. Initial Cost: The upfront cost of steel structures can be higher
compared to other materials.
4. Thermal Conductivity: Steel conducts heat, which can lead to
energy inefficiency if not properly insulated.
5. Complex Connections: Designing and executing connections
in steel structures can be complex and require skilled labor.
Steel Construction
Steel Sections
1. I-Beams (Universal Beams): Used primarily for beams and columns due to their
high moment of inertia.
2. Channel Sections (C-Sections): Employed in floor systems and roof purlins; easy to
assemble.
3. Angle Sections (L-Sections): Utilized in trusses and bracing systems; provide
stability.
4. T-Sections: Applied in roof trusses and as lintels over openings.
5. Hollow Structural Sections (HSS): Include square, rectangular, and circular
sections; used for columns and beams with aesthetic appeal.
Bolted and Welded Connections
Bolted Connections: Bolted connections use high-strength steel bolts to fasten
together two or more structural components.
Advantages:
• Ease of assembly and disassembly.
• Suitable for on-site connections.
• Less skilled labor required compared to welding.
•Disadvantages:
• Potential for slippage under load if not properly designed.
• May require larger connection areas.
Bolted and Welded Connections
Welded Connections: Welded connections are created by fusing steel components
together using heat or pressure, forming a continuous joint.
•Advantages:
• Provide rigid connections with high strength.
• Aesthetically pleasing with no protruding elements.
•Disadvantages:
• Require skilled labor and quality control.
• Difficult to inspect and repair
Joint Types
1. Expansion Joints
•Purpose: Accommodate thermal expansion and contraction in building materials.
•Applications:
• Long walls and slabs to prevent cracking.
• Bridges and pipelines to absorb movement.

Expansion joint in Bridge

Joint Types
2. Seismic Joints
•Purpose: Allow independent movement of building sections during seismic
events.
•Applications:
• Large structures divided into segments.
• Buildings with varying heights or structural systems.
Joint Types
3. Construction Joints
•Purpose: Facilitate construction by allowing interruptions in concrete placement.
•Applications:
• Large concrete pours divided into manageable sections.
• Integration points for future expansions.
Location and Sealing of Joints
•Locations:
• Floors, walls, Column, ceilings, and roofs.
• Interfaces between different materials or structural elements.
•Sealing Materials:
• Polyurethane sealants for flexibility and durability.
• Silicone-based sealants for UV resistance.
•Installation Considerations:
• Clean and dry joint surfaces.
• Proper backing materials to control sealant depth.
 Quote of the Day
Arjun : Krishna, why does life feel so heavy sometimes?

Krishna: Life feels heavy when you carry what’s not your-
Let go the weight and open new doors . Shed the burdens , the fear ,
when you release , you will find your flame.