Subsurface

exploration
-
SAMPLING/CHARACTERIZATIO
N METHODS
Objectives:
-to determine the general suitability of the site.
-to find the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil
and rock, which may affect the design and mode of construction of
proposed structure and foundation.
-to predict the settlements
-to ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures
-to locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil
and water on foundation material.
-selection of suitable construction technique.
-selection of type and depth of foundation.
 PLANNING OF EXPLORATION
Exploration program involve location and depth of borings, test pits or other methods to be
used, and methods of sampling and tests to be carried out to determine the stratification and
engineering properties of the soils underlying the site. The principal properties of interest will be
the shear strength, deformation, and hydraulic characteristics of soil.
The program should be planned so that the maximum amount of information can be obtained
at minimum cost. The actual planning of a subsurface exploration program includes the
following steps:
> Gather all available information
> Reconnaissance
> Preliminary exploration
> Detailed exploration
Gather all available information
Assemble all information o dimensions, column, spacing, type
and use of structure, basement requirements, and any special
architectural considerations of the proposed building. For
bridges the soil engineer should have access to type and span
lengths as well as pier loadings. This information will indicate
any settlement limitations, and can be used to estimate
foundation loads.
Reconnaissance
This step includes visual inspection carried out at site without drilling bore holes to reveal
surface and subsurface information. This includes
> Collection of information about adjacent sites and structures.
> Type of vegetation
> Ground water levels that can be determined by checking nearby wells.
> The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches.
> Soil stratification from deep cuts.
Preliminary exploration
In this step a few borings are made to establish in a general manner.
> To know the stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the
groundwater table.
> If the initial borings indicate the upper soil is loose or highly compressible, One or more
borings should be taken to rock, or hard strata,
> A feasibility exploration program should include collection of enough site data and sample
recovery to approximately determine the properties of soil, foundation design and identify the
construction procedures.
> to find the thickness and composition of each soil layer.
Detailed exploration
Here we make a detailed planning for soil exploration in the form trial pits or borings, their
spacing and depth. Accordingly, the soil exploration is carried out.
The details of the soils encountered, the type of field tests adopted and the type of sampling
done, presence of water table if met with are recorded in the form of bore log.
The soil samples are properly labeled and sent to a laboratory for evaluation of their physical
and engineering properties.
The report is prepared with clear description of the soils at the site, method of exploration, soil
profile, test methods and results, and the location of the groundwater. This should include
information and/or explanation of any unusual soil water bearing stratum and soil and
groundwater condition that may be troublesome during construction.
 DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
Generally soil exploration should be advanced to a depth up to which the increase in pressure
due to structural loading will have no damaging effect (such as settlement & shear failure) on
the structure. In other words, the depth at which soil does not contribute settlement of
foundation. This depth is termed as significant depth.
 Various factors affecting significant
depth are as follow.
۰Type of structure
۰Weight of structure
۰Dimension of structure
۰Disposition of the loaded area
۰Soil profile and layer properties
The following 3 thumb rules can be used
to know the significant depth
It can be that depth where net increase in vertical pressure becomes less than 10% of the initial
overburden pressure.
The maximum depth reached by the pressure bulb or isobar diagram drawn with an intensity of
pressure varying from 1/5th or 1/10th of the surface loading intensity(i.e 0.2 Q to 0.1Q). (where
Q= initial loading intensity).
It maybe equal to one and half of two times the width or smaller lateral dimension of the
loaded area.
 Thumb rule to decide depth of soil exploration
SI. No. Type Of Foundation Depth Of Exploration
1 Isolated spread footing or raft 1.5 B
2 Adjacent footing with clear spacing less than 2B 1.2 L
3 Pile foundation 10 to 30m or 1.5 B
4 Base of retaining wall 1.5 B(Base width)
1.5 H (Exposed height of wall face)
[whichever is greater]

5 Floating basement Depth of construction

6 Dams
1. 1.5 times of bottom width of earth
dams
2. 2 times of height from stream bed
to crest for concrete dams, for dams
less than 30m high
3. Up to bed rock, in all soft, unstable
and permeable strata.
 SI. No. Type of Foundation Depth of Exploration
7 Roads Cuts 1. 1.0m where little cut or fill is
required
2. In cut section 1.0 m below
formation level
3. In deep cuts, equal to the
bottom width or depth of the
cut

8 Road Fill 2.0 m below ground level or equal

to the height of the fill whichever
is greater

B = Width of the foundation

L = Length of the foundation
 METHODS OF EXPLORATION
> Open Excavations (Trial pits or Test pits)

> Boring Methods

> Geophysical Methods

 Open Excavation
Trial pits are applicable to all types of soils, which provides visual inspection of soil in their
natural condition in either disturbed or undisturbed state. Here depth of investigation is limited
to 3 to 3.5 m.
There are two (2) ways
1. Pits and trenches
2. Drifts and shafts
 Pits and Trenches
Pits: They are excavated at site for inspection of strata so as to provide necessary warking space.
According to IS 4453 1967, a clear working space at the bottom of the pit should be 1.2 m x 1.2
m. Shallow pits (upto 3m) do not require lateral support. For depth greater than 3m and GWT
arises the lateral support in the form of sheeting and bracing is required.
Trenches: They can be defined as long shallow pits. It is continuous over a considerable length
and provides exposure along a line. On slope trenches are more suitable than pits.
 Drifts and Shafts
Drifts: They are the horizontal tunnels made in the hill sides to determine the nature and
structure of the geological strata. According to IS 4453-1980 a drift should be 1.5m wide and 2m
height in hard rock. In soft rock arched roof can be provided.

Shaft: Large sized vertical holes made in the geological formation are called as shafts
For circular diameter = 2.4m (min.)
For rectangular width = 2.4m
Usually done for depth greater than 4m.
 Boring
Exploratory bore holes are excavated in relative soft soil close to ground. The location, spacing
and depth depends on type, size and weight of the structure. Bore holes are generally located at
> The building corner
> The centre of the site
> The place at which heavily loaded columns are proposed
> Atleast one boring should be taken to a deeper stratum
When the depth of excavation is large, vertical boring methods are adopted. Samples are
extracted from bore holes and tested in laboratory. GWT is located and institute are carried
using bore holes. Depending on type of soil and purpose of boring the methods are classified as:
Borehole Spacing-Guidelines
SI. No. Type of Project Spacing (m)
1 Multi-storey building 10-30
2 Industrial Plant 20-60
3 Highway 250-500
4 Residential Subdivision 250-500
5 Dams and Dikes 40-80
 Boring Method
> Auger Boring

> Wash Boring

> Percussion Boring

> Core Boring OR Rotary Drilling

Auger Boring
Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soil above water table level
Augers are either mechanical or manually operated
Hand Augers are used for upto an depth of 6m.
Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depth and they can also be used in gravelly
soils.
Augers are of two (2) types:
1. Spiral Augers (Helical Augers)
2. Post-hole Auger
Wash Boring
Suitability:
Exploration below GWT
For all soils except for gravel and boulders
Technique:
Making of hole for short depth using an auger
Installation of casing pipe (manually/power)
Installation of tripod, pulley and winch
Hollow drill bit screwed to a hollow drill rod connected to a rope passing over a pulley
The hollow drill bit assembly placed in the hole
Water is forced through the swivel and the drilling rod using a pump
Technique:
The rods are rotated and also moved up and down either manually or with a mechanizes rig
The loosened soil comes out of the borehole in the form of slurry through the annular space
between the rod and side of hole
The suspension is led to a settling tank where the soil particle settle
Water collected in the sump is re-circulated again.
Percussion Boring
- Suitable for hard soil and soft rock where auger boring and wash boring can not be employed
- Hole is made using auger
- Installation of casing pipe
-Heavy drill bit called “Chum bit” is attached to drill rods
- Bore hole is extended by repeated blows of the drill bit using winch system
- Water is forced through the drill rod assembly for breaking stiff soil rock
- Slurry removed by bailers
- Method cannot be used in loose sand an is slow in plasticity
- Formation gets badly disturbed by impact
- Generally, it is 45-100cm in depth with rate of 35-0 drops/min. It can be used in most of the soils and rocks and
can drill any material.
Core Boring or Rotary Drilling
Rotary drilling method of boring is useful in case of highly resistant strata. It is related to finding out the rock
strata and also to access the quality of rock from cracks, fissures and joints. It can conveniently be used in
sands and silts also.
1. This method is used for drilling large bores in unconsolidated strata.
2. This is fastest method and has been used for wells of 45 cm dia and for depth over 163 m. Oil wells over
7000 m deep have been drilled by this method.
3. In this method, he boring is done with the help of drilling bit attached at the end of a string of a hollow
pipe.
4. A mixture of clay and water, known as drilling mud, is continuously circulated through drill shaft in the
hole.
5. Material loosened by the bit is carried upward in the hole by a rising mud.
6. Ordinarily no casing is required since the drilling mud forms a clay lining and supports the walls of hole.
 GEOPHYSICAL METHOD
Geo-physical method are used when the depth of exploration is very large, and also when the
speed of investigation is primary importance. The major method of geo-physical investigation
are: gravitational methods, magnetic methods, seismic refraction method, and electrical
resistivity method. Out of this seismic refraction method and electrical resistivity methods are
the most commonly used in Civil Engineering purposes. It is a non-intrusive method of “seeing”
into the ground. Geophysical method includes surface and down-hole measurements
techniques which provide details about subsurface hydrogeologic and geologic conditions.
These methods have been applied to detecting contaminant plumes and locating buried waste
materials some method are quite site specific in their performance.
Electricity Resistivity Method
The electricity resistivity is resistance to the material passage of electrical current.
Each soil has own resistivity depending upon its water content, compaction and composition; for
example, it is low for saturated silt and high for loose dry gravel or solid rocks. The test is
conducted by driving four metal spikes to serve as electrodes into the ground along a straight
line at equal distance. A direct voltage is imposed between the two outer electrodes, and the
potential drop is measured between the inner electrodes. The mean resistivity Q (ohm-m) is
computed from the expression:
Ώ = 2π D E/I Ohm-m
D = Distance between the electrodes (m)
E = Current Flowing between outer eectrodes (amps)
I = Potential drop between inner electrodes (volts)