Name: Rose Ann T.

Claveria Date Submitted: November ,2020

Subject: Foundation Submitted to: Engr. Sheila B. Caberte

“EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES AND EXCAVATIONS”

Retaining wall

Is a structure that holds or retains soil behind it. There are many types of materials that can be
used to create retaining walls like concrete blocks, poured concrete, treated timber, rocks or boulders.
To retain soil at a slope which is greater than it would naturally assume, usually at vertical or near
vertical position.

 Conventional retaining walls can generally be classified into four varieties:

1. Gravity retaining walls
2. Semigravity retaining walls
3. Cantiliver retaining walls
4. Counterfort retaining walls

 Gravity Retaining walls

Are constructed with plain concrete or stone masonry. They depend for stability on their own
weight and any soil resting on masonry. This type of construction is not economical for high walls. In
many cases, small amount of steel maybe used for the construction of gravity walls, thereby minimizing
the size of the wall sections. Such walls are generally referred to as semigravity walls.

 Semi- gravity walls

Resist external forces by the combined action of self weight, weight of soil above footing and
the flexural resistance of the wall components.

 Cantilever Retaining walls

Is the most common type if retaining structure and is generally economical for heights up to
about 8m. The stucture consists of vertical stem, and a base slab made up of two distinct regions, a heel
slab and a toe slab.

 Counterfort Retaining walls

Are similar to cantiliver walls. At regular intervals, however they have thin vertical concrete slabs
knon as counterforts that tie the wall and base slab together. Purpose is to reduce the shear and the
bending moments.

Gravity and Cantiliver Walls

 Proportioning Retaining Walls

An Engineer must assume some of their dimensions in designing retaining walls, such
assumptions allow the engineer to check trial sections of the walls for stability.
 Note:
 Top of the stem retaining wall - >0.3m(12in.)
 Depth to the bottom of base slab(D)- minimum of 0.6m(2ft.)
 Counterfort slabs about 0.3m(12 in.)
 Spaced at the center-to-center distance of 0.3H to 0.7H.

 Application of Lateral Earth Pressure theories to Design

To use this theories in design , an Engineer must make several simple assumptions.
There are two Earth Pressure theories by Columb and Rankine. These two theories are still in
use in their original form and in som emodified forms to calculate the earth pressure.

 Stability of Retaining Walls overturning sliding

A retaining wall may fail in any of the ff. ways:

 It may overturn about its toe. (a)

 It may slide along its base.(b)
 It may fail due to the loss of bearing capacity of the soil

supporting the base.(c) Bearing Capacity Failure Deep-seated shear failure

 It may undergo deep-seated shear failure.(d)

 It may go through excessive settlement.

 Deep-seated shear failure

Occur along cylindrical surface, such as abc as a result of existence of a weak layer soil
underneath the wall at deph 1.5 times the width of base slab of retaining wall. For the backfill
slope with a less than about 10°.

 Check for Overturning

Rankine active pressure is acting along a vertical plane AB drawn through the heel of the
structure. Pp – Rankine passive pressure.

 The factor of safety against overturning about the toe – that is, about point C;
 Check for sliding along Base

The factor safety against sliding maybe expressed by equation;

Indicates that the shear strength of the soil immediately below the base slab;

 Check for bearing Capacity Failure

The sum of vertical forces acting on the base slab is ∑ V, and the horizontal force Ph is Pa
cos a. Let be the Resultant force.

The net moment of those forces about point C is;

Let the line of action of the resultant R intersect the base slab at E. Then the distance;

The ecentricity of Resultant R may be expressed as;

For maximum and minimum pressures, the value of y equals B/2 gives;
 The factor of safety against bearing capacity failure can be determined;

Example:

A concrete gravity retaining wall is shown in the figure. Determine:

a. The factor of safety against overturning

b. The factor of safety against sliding
c. The pressure on the soil at the toe and heel
Use Rankine’s Earth Pressure Theory. (Note: Unit weight of concrete = yc = 150 lb/ftᶟ

Solution

a.) Factor of Safety against Overturning

The overturning moment

b.) Factor of Safety against sliding;

c.) Pressure on the soil at the Toe and Heel;

 Construction Joints and Drainage from Backfill

A retaining wall may be constructed with one or more of the ff. joints;

1. Construction Joints
-are vertical and horizontal joints that are placed between two successive pours of
concrete.
2. Contraction Joints
– are vertical joints (grooves) placed in the face of a wall that allow the concrete to
shrink without noticeable harm; the grooves maybe about 6 to 8 mm wide and 12 to
16mm deep.
3. Expansion Joints
– vertical expansion joint from the base to the top of the wall may also be used. Maybe
filled with flexible joint fillers.

 Drainage from the backfill

 The backfill material for retaining wall may become saturated because of rainfall or wet
conditions, thereby increasing the pressure on the wall and perhaps creating an unstable
condition.

Two main factors influence the choice of filter material;

(a) The soil to be protected is not washed into filter.

(b) Excessive hydrostatic pressure head is not created in the soil with lower hydraulic
conductivity (in this case, the backfill material).

where:

F – filter

B – base material

Mechanically Stabilized Retaining Walls

Reinforcement materials such as metallic strips, geotextiles, and geo grids are now being used to
reinforce the backfill of retaining wall.

 Soil Reinforcement
The used of reinforcement earth is a recent development in the design and construction
of foundation and earth- retaining structures. Reinforced earth is construction material
made from soil that has been strengthened by tensile elements such as metal rods or
strips, non-biodegradable fabrics, geo grids.

 Considerations in Soil Reinforcement

 Metal strips - the average rate of corrosion of galvanized steel strips varies bet. 0.025
and 0.050 mm/yr. So in the actual design of reinforcement allowance must be made for
rate of corrosion. Thus,

 Non-biodegradable Fabrics – are referred to as geotextiles. Geotextiles maybe woven,

knitted, or nonwoven.

Geotextiles have Four primary uses in foundation engineering:

1. Drainage 3. Separation
2. Filtration 4. Reinforcement
 Geo grids – are high-modulus polymer materials, such as polypropylene and
polyethylene, and are prepared by tensile drawing. Its major function is reinforcement.
 Two types of geo grids:

a) Uniaxial

b) Biaxial

 General Design Considerations

The general design can be divided into two parts:

1. Satisfying internal stability requirements

2. Checking the external stability of the wall

 Retaining walls with Metallic strip reinforcement

Reinforced-earth are flexible walls. Their main component are:

1. Backfill, which is granular soil

2. Reinforcing strips, which are thin, wide strips placed at regular intervals
3. A cover or skin, on the front face of the wall

 Calculation of active horizontal and vertical pressure

According to the Rankine active pressure theory

Where:

 Tie force
The tie force per unit length of the wall developed at any depth z is;

T = active earth pressure at depth z x area of the wall to be supported by the tie

 Factor of Safety against Tie Failure

The reinforcement ties at each level, and thus the walls, could fail either
(a) Tie breaking
(b) Tie pullout

The factor safety against tie breaking maybe determined as:

The Factor safety against tie pullout at any depth

 maximum friction force

 Total Length of Tie

The total length of ties at any depth is

 Retaining Walls with Geotextile Reinforcement

In this type of retaining wall, the facing of the wall is formed by lapping the
sheets. When construction is finished, the exposed face of the wall must be covered;
otherwise, the geotextile will deteriorate from exposure to ultraviolet light.

 Internal Stability
Step 1. Determine the active pressure distribution on the wall
Step 2. Select a geotextile fabric with an allowable strength of σG (lb/ft or Kn/m)
Step 3. Determine the vertical spacing of the layers at any depth z
Syep4. Determine the length of each layer of geotextile
Step 5 Determine the lap length; the minimum lap length should be 1m(3ft).
 External Stability
Step 6. Check the factors of safety against overturning, sliding, and bearing
capacity failure

Example:

A geotextile-reinforced retaining wall 16ft. high is shown in the figure. For the granular backfill,

y1 = 110lb/ftᶟ and ᶲ’1 = 36°. For the geotextile σ = 80 lb/in. For the design of the wall, determine Sv, L,
G

and II.

Solution

Determination of Sv
Determination of L

Determination of lI

Sheet Pile Walls

 Are often use to build continuous walls for waterfront structures. Are also used for some
temporary structures, such as braced cuts.

Types of sheet pile

a) Wooden sheet piles – used only for temporary, light structures that are above the water table.
b) Precast concrete sheet piles – are heavy and are designed with reinforcement to withstand the
permanent stresses. About 500 to 800mm wide and 150 to 250mm thick.
c) Steel sheet piles – in the U.S. are about 10 to 13mm thick.

 Construction Methods

The sheet pile maybe driven into the ground and then the backfill placed on the land side.

Two basic categories of sheet pile walls

a) Cantilever
b) Anchored

Two categories of construction method

a) Backfilled structure
b) Dredge structure

 Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls

Are usually recommended for walls of moderate height about 6m or less, measured above
the dredge line.

 Cantilever Sheet piling penetrating sandy soils

The soil retained by the sheet piling above the dredge line also is sand. The water table is at

depth L1 below the top of the wall. Let the effective friction of the sand be ᶲ’. The intensity of
active pressure at a depth z = L1 is

 Calculation of maximum bending moment

Example:

The figure shows a cantilever sheet-pile wall penetrating a granular soil.

a. What is the theoretical depth of embedment, D?

b. For a 30% increase in D, what should be the total length of the sheet piles?
c. What should be the minimum section modulus of the sheet piles? Use σall = 30 kip/ft².

Solution

a.)
b.)

c.)

 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating a Sandy Soil

In the absence of the water table, the net pressure diagram on the cantilever sheet pile
wall shown in the figure, which is a modified version.

 Cantilever Sheet Piling Penetrating Clay

 Must be driven into a clay layer possessing an undrained cohesion c( φ =0).

 Maximum Bending Moment

The magnitude of the maximum bending moment:

 Special Cases for Cantilever Walls Penetrating Clay

The theoretical depth of penetration, D can be calculated as:

The magnitude of maximum moment in the wall is:

 Anchored Sheet-Pile Walls

When the height of the backfill material behind a cantilever sheet-pile wall
exceeds about 6m, trying the wall near the top to anchor plates, anchor walls, becomes
more economical.

Two basic method of designing anchored sheet-pile walls:

a) Free earth support method – minimum penetration depth

b) Fixed earth support method

Dfree earth < Dfixed earth

 Free Earth Support Method for Penetration of Sandy Soil

The tie rod connecting the sheet pile and the anchor is located at a depth below
the top of the sheet-pile wall.

Tension in the tie rod/unit length of the wall is:

Trial and error to determine the theoretical depth:

 The theorotical depth is increased by about 30-40% for actual construction:

 Computational Pressure Diagram Method for Penetration into Sandy Soil

Is a simplified method of design and an alternative to the free earth method. In

this method, the net pressure is replaced by rectangular pressure diagrams.

 Depth of Penetration

 Anchor Force

 Maximum Moment

Example:

For the anchored sheet pile wall shown in the figure, determine the following. Use the CPD
method; assume that C= 0.68 and R= 0.6.

(a) D
(b) F
(c) Mmax

Solution
 a)

b)

c)

Anchors

Anchor plates and beams are generally made of cast concrete blocks. The anchors are attached
to the sheet pile by tie-rods. A wale placed at the front or back face of a sheet pile for the purpose of
conveniently attaching the tie-rod to the wall. To protect the tie rod from corrosion, it is generally
coated with paint or asphaltic materials.

Types of anchor used in sheet-pile walls are:

1. Anchor plates and beams (dead man)

2. Tie backs
3. Vertical anchor piles
4. Anchor beams supported by batter (compression and tension) piles

 Holding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Sand

Three steps in calculating the ultimate resistance of anchors in sand

Step 1. Basic Case

Step 2. Strip Case

Step 3. Actual Case

  Empirical Correlation Based on Model test

 Factor of Safety for Anchor Plates

 Spacing of Anchor Plates

 Holding Capacity of Anchor Plates in Clay ( ᶲ= 0 Condition)

Mackenzie (1995) and Tschebotarioff (1973) identified the nature of variation of the
ultimate resistance of strip anchors and beams as a function of H, h and c (undrained cohesion
based on ᶲ= 0) in a non-dimensional form based on laboratory model results. And in the form of a
non-dimensional plot can be used to estimate the ultimate resistance of anchor plates in saturated
clay.

 Ultimate Resistance of Tiebacks

In clays, the ultimate resistance of tiebacks;

Braced Cuts
An excavation supported by suitable bracing system are called braced cuts.

These excavation support system are used to,

 Minimize the excavation area

 Keep the sides of deep excavations stable
 Ensure that movements of soil will not cause damage to neighboring structures or to
utilities in the surrounding ground.

Design of braced excavation means selection of wales, struts, sheet piles and soldier beams
to support the excavation without any collapse by estimating the lateral earth pressure to which
the braced cuts will be subjected to.

Types of Vertical Cuts

 Shallow cuts
 Deep cuts
 Open cuts
 Closed cuts
 Temporary cuts
 Permanent cuts

In shallow cuts depth of excavation is less than 6m. The bracing of this type of cut
generally standard. In deep cuts depth of excavation is more than 6m and the design of
suitable bracings (supporting system) necessary to safe guard the cut or trench against
collapse.

Types of braced cuts

a.) Use of soldier beams

b.) Use of sheet piles

CROSS SECTION OF BRACED CUT

 Soldier beam is driven into the ground
before excavation and is a vertical steel or timber
beam. Laggings, which are horizontal timber plank,
are placed between soldier beam as the exaction
proceeds. When the excavation reaches the desired
depth, wales and struts are installed. The struts are
horizontal compression members.

Interlocking sheet piles are driven in to the

soil before excavation. Wales and struts are inserted
immediately after excavation reaches the
appropriate depth.

(b) Use of sheet piles

 Different types of sheeting and bracing systems

 Vertical Timber Sheeting – consisting of planks about 8 to 10 cm thick driven around the
boundary of the proposed excavation to some depth below the base of excavation. Are
economical up to a depth of 4 to 6 m.
 Steel Sheet Pile – in this method, are driven along the sides of the proposed excavation.
As the soil is excavated from the enclosure, wales and struts are placed. As the
excavation progress, another sets of whales and struts is inserted.
 Soldier Beams -  are H-piles which are driven at a spacing of 1.5 to 2.5 m around the
boundary of the proposed excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber
planks called laggings are placed between the soldier beams. When the excavation
advances to a suitable depth, wales and struts are inserted .
 Tie Backs - In this method, no bracing in the form of struts or inclined rakers is provided.
Therefore, there is no hindrance to the construction activity to be carried out inside the
excavated area. The tie back is a rod or a cable connected to the sheeting or lagging on
one side and anchored into soil (or rock) outside the excavation area. Inclined holes are
drilled into the soil (or rock), and the hole is concreted.
 Use of Slurry Trenches - An alternative to use of sheeting and bracing system, which is
being increasingly used these days, is the construction of slurry trenches around the
 area to be excavated and is kept filled with heavy, viscous slurry of a bentonite clay-
water mixture.

 Modes of Failure of Braced Cut

 Failure of soil by bottom heave (applicable to clay)

 Failure of soil due to piping (applicable to sand)
 Failure by buckling of struts

 Bottom Heave of a Cut in Clay

Braced cuts in clays may become unstable as a result of having of the bottom of
excavation.

For excavations of limited length L, the factor of safety can be modified to;

In homogeneous clay, if FS becomes less than 1.5, the sheet pile is driven deeper.

The force p per unit length of the buried sheet pile may be expressed as;

and

Example:

Assume that the length of the cut is 25 m and a hard stratum is located at a depth of 4 m below
the bottom of the cut. Calculate the factor of safety against bottom heave.

Solution

So;
  Stability of the Bottom of a cut in Sand

The bottom of a cut in stand is generally

stable. When the water is encountered, the bottom
of the cut is stable as long as the water level inside
the excavation is higher than the groundwater level.
In this case dewatering is needed the factor of
safetyagainst piping should be checked.

Piping – may occur when a high hydraulic

gradient is created by water flowing into the
excavation.

Determining the factor of safety against piping by

drawing a flow net.

Flow net for the maximum exit gradient;

The factor of safety against piping;

 Lateral yielding of sheet piles and ground settlement

In braced cuts, some lateral movement of sheet pile walls may be

expected. The amount of lateral yield depends on several factors, the
most important of which is the elapsed time between excavation and the
placement of wales and struts.

Lateral yielding of the walls will cause the ground surface

surrounding the cut to settle. The lateral yielding of walls will generally
induce ground settlement around a braced cut. Such settlement is
generally referred to as ground loss.

Peck (1969) provided curves for predicting ground settlement in

various types of soil. Magnitude of ground loss varies extensively.

DEWATERING
 • A simple answer would be the process of removing water from sludge (suspension of solid
matter in liquid).

• Dewatering is the process of natural, chemical, or mechanical removal of water from sludge,
thereby reducing it to a damp solid with the lowest level of moisture attainable.

The separation of solids from fluids (dewatering) is one of the important subjects in the
field of mineral dressing

• Water purification

• In mining and smelting operations

 Mechanical separation of solids from liquids is accomplished by one of two general procedures:

• Thickening.

• filtration (Ultimate moisture removal is obtained by drying)

• Separation of solids from gases

• settling

• Filtration

 THICKENING:

• A suspension of solids in a liquid is allowed to

settle until a clear liquid layer tops a mud layer.

• A volume reduction of approximately 30 – 80 %

can be reached with sludge thickening before a
further treatment.

•  At smaller wastewater treatment plants, where

the sludge is driven off regularly,

• Thickening usually takes place directly in the

sludge storage tank. The sludge is compressed at
the tank bottom only by the force of gravity, while
above the sludge a cloudy water layer is formed,
which is taken off and led back into the inlet.

STEPS IN PROCESS OF THICKENING 

• Flocculation of the minute solid particles so as to form aggregators flocs of many particles.

• Sedimentation of the liquid-laden flocs, leaving clear liquid.

• Compaction of the sediment flocs.

• Elimination of the clear fluid and of the thickened mud.

 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DEWATERING FLOCCULATED PULP: 

 • Free settling of flocs.

• Hindered settling of flocs.

• Exudation of water from the settled flocs, under the influence of pulp pressure.

• Exudation of water from the settled and naturally exuded flocs by application of outside
pressure or suction
SLIME SETTLING ZONE IN DORR THICKENER.

 DORR THICKNER: 

• Although less expensive per square foot of settling area they are

• Less effective and more difficult to operate

• More power consumption

 FILTRATION: 

• Filtration is that separation of finely divided solid particles from a fluid which is accomplished
by driving the pulp to a membrane or septum, porous to the fluid but impervious to the solid, through
which the fluid passes, and by the removal of the solid cake from the septum.

 MECHANISM OF FILTRATION: 

• The simplest type of filter consists of a tube of small bore through which
the fluid is sucked while the solid particles accumulate at the entrance. As the
device is operated, solids at first pass through the tube, but they quickly arch or
bridge across the opening, allowing only clear liquid to pass.

 RATE OF FILTRATION: 
 • The filtering area.

• The difference in pressure between two sides of the filter

• The average cross section of the pores within the filter cake

• The number of pores per unit area of the septum

• The thickness of the filter cake

 TYPES OF FILTERS: 

• Pressure type: pressure is applied to push the liquid through the filter bed. (for
hydrometallurgical work in which interest centers on the filtrate, as in cyanidation.) eg. Hardinge
filter thickener.

• Suction type: suction is applied to pull the liquid through the filter bed. (used in chemical
laboratories, for mineral dressing in which interest centers on the cake.) eg. Genter thickener.

 PRESSURE AND SUCTION FILTERS: 

Advantage:
• higher fluid capacity per square foot of filtering surface,
• better control of cake formation,
• possibility of better washing of cake
Disadvantage:
• A great disadvantage is that they are intermittent (stopping and starting at regular intervals)
instead of continuous.

 BENEFITS FROM DEWATERING: 

A good reason would be cost savings and environmental awareness.

• Lower Transport and Disposal costs.

• Dewatered solids are cheaper and easier to incinerate.

• Ease of handling with dewatered solids.

• Less offensive smells.

• Reduced volume in landfills.

• Reduced leachate production in landfills.

• Lower amount and cost for bulking agents for composting