UC-Psychology Department

Chapter 4
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
======================================================================
MEANING OF SENSATION

The sensory system is composed of receptors in the body commonly known as the
sense organs. The sense organs are the gateways of the body. The most common
sense organs that we know are the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and the skin. Other
receptors are however located in the muscles, the joints, and the tendons.

Sensation is the process of detecting information from the external world by the sense
organs. Anything that activates the sense organs is called a stimulus. Sensation has the
following characteristics:

1. Absolute threshold- refers to the minimum amount of energy needed to activate a

sense organ. Below the threshold you cannot detect that a stimulus is present.
Detecting stimuli is not only due to the properties of the stimuli and the sensory
system. The signal detection theory holds that psychological factors such as motivation
are important as well.

2. Differential threshold- refers to the smallest amount of stimulation needed to

discriminate one stimulus from another. This is also called the just noticeable
difference (jnd).

3. Sensory Adaptation- refers to weakened responsiveness to stimulus energy. With

constant, prolonged stimulation, the ability of the sensory systems to provide
information is reduced.

THE SENSORY SYSTEMS

A. THE VISUAL SENSE (Sense of Sight)

The physical stimulus for vision is light, a form of electromagnetic energy that can be
measured in terms of wavelengths. The wavelength of visible light approximately
ranges from 400-700 nanometers (nm). Lights with wavelengths below and above this
range are not visible.

Parts of the Eye

The light reflected from objects enters the eye through the cornea, a tough,
transparent membrane that covers the front of the eye. The light then passes through
a fluid called the aqueous humor. The amount of light entering is regulated by the
pupil which is an opening in the iris. The iris is the colored part of the eye. The pupil
dilates under dim light while it constricts if the light is bright. The light is then
transmitted to the lens, a transparent, elastic structure that allows the eye to adjust its
focus in accordance with the object’s distance. The lens can be changed in curvature
by the ciliary muscles in order to focus the light rays into the photosensitive surface of
 UC-Psychology Department

the eye called the retina. Before getting into the retina, however, the light passes
through another fluid called the vitreous humor. The retina consists of two
photoreceptors called the rods and the cones. The rods function well under reduced
illumination while the cones allow us to see colors and are responsible for daytime
vision. These photoreceptors convert the light into nerve signals that are transmitted
to the brain. A minute structure in the center of the retina is the fovea where vision is
at its sharpest. Also in the retina is the blind spot where the optic nerve leaves the
eye on its way to the occipital lobe of the brain.

B. THE AUDITORY SENSE (Sense of Hearing)

The physical stimulus for the auditory sense is sound which arises when changes in
the pressure of the atmosphere cause air molecules to vibrate.

The Parts of the Ear

The ear is generally divided into the outer ear, middle ear, and the inner ear. The
outer ear is composed of the pinna, auditory canal and the eardrum (tympanic
membrane). The pinna collects the sound waves. The auditory canal serves as a
passage way of the sound going to the eardrum. The eardrum vibrates in response to
sound. The vibrations of the eardrum indicate that the sound wave is being
transmitted to the middle ear.

The middle ear is composed of three bony structures called the ossicles. The ossicles
are the hammer, anvil, and the stirrup. These ossicles are successively moved by the
vibrating eardrum. The movements of the ossicles indicate that the sound wave is
being transmitted to the inner ear.

The inner ear is composed of the oval window, cochlea, and the organ of corti. From
the stirrup, sound travels to the oval window, the only part of the inner ear to receive
sound vibrations directly. Sound waves go into the cochlea, a snaillike, fluid-filled
structure. In the cochlea is the organ of corti, which runs the entire length of the
cochlea. It contains the hair cells, the ear’s sensory receptors. These hair cells are
stimulated by vibrations of the basilar membrane which is located at the base of the
organ of corti. The vibrations produce the nerve impulse that is transmitted to the
temporal lobe of the brain through the auditory nerve.

C. OLFACTORY SENSE (SENSE OF SMELL)

The stimuli for the olfactory sense are airborne chemicals (gaseous substances) that
enter the nasal passages and stimulate the olfactory bulbs, the smell receptors found
in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is located at the forward base of
the cerebral hemisphere.

Henning, a German scientist claimed that there are six basic odors: fragrant, fruity,
spicy, putrid, resinous, and burned.
UC-Psychology Department

Anosmia- is a disorder in the perception of odors characterized by insensitivity to

smell caused by drug reactions and certain illnesses.

D. GUSTATORY SENSE (SENSE OF TASTE)

The stimuli for the gustatory sense are substances dissolved in the saliva. These
soluble substances stimulate the taste buds, the sense receptors for taste found in
the papillae of the tongue. There are about 10,000 taste buds on the tongue,
clustered in papillae (those bumps all over your tongue). The taste buds are clusters
of neuron bodies that line tiny pits in the papillae,

Taste buds respond to four primary taste qualities: sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.
Taste buds for sweet are concentrated at the front or tip of the tongue; those for
sour are found along the edges at the back; those for bitter are concentrated at the
back; and those for salty are found along the sides at the front.

Flavor is a much broader term that includes taste, smell, touch, and at times pain.
For example, if you have eaten a bowl of spicy chili, the flavor includes the pungent
smell of the onions, the creamy smooth texture, and the distinct pain from the chili
pepper.

E. SOMESTHETIC SENSE (SKIN SENSES)

The skin is our largest sensory system that drapes over our bodies. It is composed of
three layers which are the (a) epidermis-the outer layer, (b) dermis- the intermediate
layer, and(c) subcutaneous adipose tissue- the innermost layer. In these layers are
blood vessels and nerve endings which enable us to experience skin sensation. The
skin has receptors for touch, temperature (warmth and cold) and pain.

1. Touch
Different parts of the body do not have the same sensitivity to touch. Sensitive. In
a study, it was found out that that the body’s most sensitive areas were in the head
region(nose, upper lip, etc..) while the least sensitive areas were in the foot region
such as the sole of the foot. Also, it was shown that women are more sensitive to
touch than men.

2. Temperature (Warmth and Cold)

The body has a regulatory system that keeps the body at about 98.6 degrees
Fahrenheit. The skin plays an important role in this regulatory system. The forehead
is especially sensitive to heat, the arm is less sensitive, and the calf is the least
sensitive.

The experiences of warmth and cold are elicited by any change in the normal
gradient of skin temperature-that is, by any change in the difference between the
temperature of the skin surface and the temperature of the blood circulating
beneath it.
UC-Psychology Department

3. Pain
Although pain is an unpleasant experience, it has an important function in telling us
that something is wrong with our bodies. Endurance for pain varies from culture to
culture. In some cultures individuals are taught to endure pain as long as they
possibly can; in other cultures, individuals are encouraged to avoid all painful
encounters.

One theory that can explain the sense of pain is the gate-control theory. The
gate-control theory of pain claims that neural gates are present in both the spinal
cord and the brain stem. The amount of pain we feel is determined by whether these
gates are open or shut. This is the explanation behind such phenomena as the
benefits of rubbing a painful area, the use of hot or cold compresses, acupuncture,
and acupressure This theory may also explain the effectiveness of acupuncture, a
Chinese technique in which sharp needles are inserted into various parts of the body.
The sensation from the needles may close the gate to the brain, reducing the
experience of pain. It is also possible that the body’s own painkillers called
endorphins as well as positive and negative emotions may play a role in opening and
closing the gates (Feldman, 1996).

F. KINESTHETIC SENSE

The kinesthetic sense provides information about movement, posture, and

orientation. Without this sense we would experience difficulty in maintaining our
posture and controlling our movements. The sense receptors are found in the
muscles, joints, and tendons.

G. VESTIBULAR SENSE

These senses deal with total body position in relation to gravity and with motion of
the body as a whole. They provide information about balance and movement and
tell us whether our body is tilted, moving, slowing down, or speeding up. The sense
receptors are located at the semi-circular canals and the vestibular sacs in the inner
ear. The vestibular sense is also connected to parts of the brain that tell you when
it is time to vomit. This is the cause of motion sickness

PERCEPTION

Perception refers to the brain’s process of interpreting sensory information to give it

meaning (Santrock, 1988). Scientifically, there should be sensation first before
perception.

Subliminal Perception- is the perception of a stimulus below the threshold of

awareness (Santrock, 1988). A stimulus can be so weak that it cannot elicit a
response; however, if the stimulus is repeatedly applied to the sensory receptor,
then it can produce a reaction.

I. FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

UC-Psychology Department

We do not perceive everything at the same time; rather, we select certain objects to
perceive while ignoring others. The direction of perception toward certain selected
objects is called attention. Attention is determined by stimulus conditions and
personal factors. The stimulus condition refers to the characteristics or properties
of the stimulus that help to determine the direction of attention. These
characteristics are: (a) size, (b) intensity, (c) movement, (d) repetition and (e)
contrast. On the other hand, personal factors refer to motivation, values, and
interest.

II. SHAPE PERCEPTION

We perceive shapes because of contours. A contour is a location at which a sudden

change of brightness occurs. It marks off a figure from a background which is the two
general parts of our perceptual world. A figure is perceived with definite shape,
whereas the background seems shapeless. Furthermore, a background appears to
continue behind the figure. The figure seems closer to the viewer. In contrast, the
background seems farther away. Sometimes however, some figure-ground
relationships are highly ambiguous and it difficult to tell what is figure and what is
ground.

OXXXXXXXXXX **************
XOXXXXXXXXX **************
XXOXXXXXXXX **************
XXXOXXXXXXX You are much more likely to see three lines of
XXXXOXXXXXX close-together *’s than 14 vertical collections of 3
XXXXXOXXXXX *’s each.
XXXXXXOXXXX
XXXXXXXOXXX
[ ][ ][ ]
XXXXXXXXOXX Next, there’s the law of symmetry. Despite the
XXXXXXXXXOX pressure of proximity to group the brackets nearest
XXXXXXXXXXO each other together, symmetry overwhelms our
It is just natural for us to see the o’s as a line within perception and makes us see them as pairs of
a field of x’s. symmetrical brackets.

Gestalt psychologists have developed principles on how we organize patterns and

group shapes in our perceptual world. These principles are:
UC-Psychology Department

1. Principle of proximity - states that objects that are near each other tend to be
perceived as a unit.
2. Principle of similarity - states that similar to each other tend to be seen as a unit.
3. Principle of good continuation states that we tend to perceive smooth, continuous
lines, rather than discontinuous fragments.
4. Principle of closure- states that a figure with a gap will be perceived as a closed,
intact figure

III. PERCEPTION OF DISTANCE

Psychologists explain how distance and depth of objects can be perceived by means
of binocular and monocular cues Binocular cues make use of both eyes in
determining distance and depth of objects. These are retinal disparity and
convergence. On the other hand, monocular cues make use of only one eye. The
monocular cues are the following:
1. Linear perspective - parallel lines appear to meet at a distance.
2. Relative size – objects that appear to occupy more space are perceived to be
nearer.
3. Overlap- when one object overlaps another, we judge the completely visible
object to be nearer than the partly covered object.
4. Texture gradient- the texture of surfaces becomes denser as the distance
increases.
5. Atmospheric Perspective – distant object often look blurry and bluish

IV. PERCEPTION OF MOVEMENT

There are two kinds of movements that we perceive: real and apparent motions.
Real motion indicates that there is actual movement of the stimulus over the
receptor while in apparent motion, the object is stationary but is perceived to be
moving.

Kinds of Apparent Motion

1. Stroboscopic movement- an apparent movement seen in movies. A movie
projector simply throws successive pictures of a scene onto the screen.
2. Autokinetic Effect- a small stationary spot of light in a completely dark room will
appear to move if a person fixates on it.
3. Induced Movement- a stationary spot may be perceived as moving when its
background or frame of reference moves.

V. VISUAL ILLUSIONS

Visual illusions are physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception,
causing judgments that do not accurately reflect the physical reality of the stimulus.
Among the commonly known illusions are the Muller-Lyer illusion and the
Poggendorf illusion.

VI. EXTRA-SENSORY PERCEPTION (ESP)

UC-Psychology Department

ESP refers to perception that occurs through non-normal sensory processes. In other
words, it is a perception without sensation. The forms of ESP are the following:

1. Telepathy- is the transfer of thought between two individuals.

2. Precognition- is the perception of events before they occur but usually would
involve the acquisition or effect of future information that cannot be deduced from
presently available and normally acquired sense-based information or laws of
physics and/or nature

3. Clairvoyance- refers to the ability to gain information about an object, person,

location or physical event through means other than the known human senses

4. Psychokinesis- is the ability to move objects without touching them.(a.k.a.

telekinesis)

5. Astral projection is a type of out-of-body experience (OBE) in which the astral

body leaves its other six bodies and journeys far and wide to anywhere in the
universe. In an ordinary OBE, such as remote viewing or the out-of-body near-death
experience, there is a separation of a person's consciousness from his or her body. In
the near-death out-of-body experience, there may be the experience of hovering
above and perceiving one's body and environs, and hearing conversations of
surgeons or rescue workers tinkering with one's body.