CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to

i. Classify plants using

a. Botanical and
b. Agricultural techniques of classification.
i. Classify plants based on life cycle.

INTRODUCTION

The relationship between biology and agriculture is

based on the fact that both subjects deal with the
study of plants and animals. Classification of living
things involves the grouping of different kinds of
organisms according to their similarities and
differences. It is based on certain common features
which distinguish them from other groups. Plants can
be classified majorly on structure, external and internal
features and functions.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

Plants can be classified in various ways according to

major criteria. The major classifications are:
 1. Botanical classification
2. Agricultural classification
3. Classification based on life cycle

A. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Biologists especially botanists have been able to

classify plants on the basis of their structure, function
and evolutionary trends called botanical classification.

Plants are generally classified through the

botanical method using the binomial system. The
system of classification used today is based on that
introduced by a Swiss naturalist called Carolus
Linnaeus (Car Von Linne). Living things are first split
into kingdoms which are further split into another
smaller group called phyla (sub-phylum). In plants, the
kingdom is further split into divisions and broken into
classes followed by orders, families, genera and finally
species
Examples are
Maize – Zea mays
 Rice – Oryza sativa

Cocoa – Theobroma cacao

Plant kingdom is referred to as kingdom plantae, it

consists of two main divisions namely;

1 Thallophyta

2. Bryophyta

3. Tracheophyta (pteridophyta and

spermatophyta)

Characteristics of kingdom plantae.

3. The plants are multicellular.

4. The cells contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
5. The plants body is differentiated into three parts
hollow, stalk and blade.
6. Plants are generally autotrophs.

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FIGURE 1.1: BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

1. Thallophyta: Spirogyra, Volvox, Algae, Chlamydomona, fungi, lichen.

Characteristics:

i. They are simple microscopic green plants.

ii. They are simple aquatic plants.
iii. They have no true roots, stems and leaves.
iv. Due to the absence of some parts their sizes are restricted.
v. Their body structure is filamentous (thread-like) or thallus (flat).
vi. Possesses no special system for conducting food, water and nutrients.

← Bryophyta e.g. Mosses and Liverworts

Characteristics:

1. They are multicellular green plants.

 1. They lack true roots, stems and leaves.
2. They are non-vascular plants.
3. They are found in moist or damp habibats like fresh water to rock surfaces.

4. They exhibit asexual reproduction (spore formation by alternation of generation) and sexual
reproduction by fussion of gametes.

What is Alternation of Generations ?

Alternation of generation is the occurrence within the reproductive life-cycle of an organism
of two distrinct forms, having a complex life-cycle involving the Alternation from asexual to
sexual type of reproduction. This stage involve sporophytic and gametophytic phases
respectively. In most Bryophytes, the gametophyte is the dominant species.

i. Tracheophyta

Tracheophytes are vascular plants with vessels for conducting water and food. They include seed
bearing flowering plants and spore bearing non-flowering plants like fern. Tracheophyta can be
divided into

1. Pteridophyta (spore bearing)

2. Spermatophyta. (Seed bearing)

a Pteridophyta e.g. Ferns (dryopteris), clubmosses, horsetail.

ii. They are multicellular and vascular green plants.
iii. They are non-flowering plants.
iv. They have true roots, stems and leaves
v. They are non-seed producing plants they reproduce sexually by spores
vi. They are found in both terrestrial and aquatic environment.
vii. Some have underground stem (rhizoids) while few may have erected stem.

a Spermatophyta: Spermatophyte can be divided into two classes namely:

i. Gymnospermae (Non-flowering, naked seed plants).
ii. Angiospermae (Flowering, covered seed plants).

Gymnospermae include pine, cycads, gingkos and conifers, whistling pine.

Characteristics

c. They are plants with naked seeds.

d. They are vascular, non-flowering green plants.
e. Performs Alternation of generation from sporophyte to gametophyte.
 f. Leaves shows compound venation and mostly needle-like.

Angisopermae include all flowering plants

Characteristics

d. They are plants with enclosed seeds.

e. They are vascular, flowering plants.
f. They have true roots, stems and leaves.
g. They are mainly terrestrial plants.
h. Their leaves shows parallel venation and usually broad.

TABLE 1.1: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GYMNOSPERMS AND ANGIOSPERMS

GYMNOSPERMS ANGIOSPERMS
i. They bear naked seeds. They bear enclosed seeds.
ii. They lack flowers. They bear flowers.
iii. They bear seeds in cones. They bear seeds (develop from ovules) in ovary
(fruit).

Angiospermae

Angiosperms can be sub-divided into two classes:

ii. Monocotyledonous plants.

iii. Dicotyledonous plants.

ii. Monocotyledonous plants

Monocotyledonous plants are plants with one cotyledons or one seed leaf. Examples include
maize, rice, oil palm, grasses etc.

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Characteristics of monocotyledonous plants
 a. They bear seeds which have only one cotyledon or seed leaf.
b. They have fibrous root system.
c. They have scattered vascular bundles.
d. They have floral parts in groups of three or its multiples.
e. They bear leaves with parallel venation.
f. They lack secondary thickening or growth.

FIGURE 1.2: A MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT (MAIZE PLANT)

i Dicotyledonous plants

Dicotyledonous plants are plants with two cotyledons or seed leaves. Examples include cowpea,
groundnut, mango, etc.

Characteristics of dicotyledonous plants

i They bear seeds which have two seed leaves or cotyledons.

ii They have tap root system.
iii They have organised vascular bundles.
iv They have floral parts in groups of four or five.
v They bear leaves with net venation.

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iv. They undergo secondary thickening or growth.
FIGURE 1.3: A DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT (BALSAM PLANT)

TABLE 1.2: SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOCOTYLEDONOUS

AND DICOTYLEDONOUES PLANTS

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS DICOTYLEDONOUES PLANTS

i. They have seeds with one cotyledon or They have seeds with two cotyledons or seed
seed leaf. leaves.

ii. They have fibrous root system They have tap root system.
iii. They exhibit hypogeal germination They exhibit epigeal germination.
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iv. They have leaves with parallel venation They have leaves with net venation.
v. They have scattered vascular bundles They have organised vascular bundles
vi. They lack secondary growth They exhibit secondary growth.
vii. They have floral parts in groups of three. They have floral parts in groups of four or five.
 B. AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

This type of classification is based on usefulness of each plant crop or plant:

a. Cereal or grain plants: these are crops cultivated for their grains (member of grass
family). They provide high carbohydrate, very low amount of proteins, vitamin and oil.
Examples include maize, rice, millet, wheat, barley etc.

b. Leguminous plants (pulses): they are important sources of protein for man and animals.
Examples include soya bean, cowpea, groundnut, bean, etc.

c. Root and tuber crops: these are plants with modified underground stem and root for
storing food. Examples are cassava, sweet potato, yam, Irish potato.

d. Vegetable crops: these are herbaceous plants cultivated for the roots, stems and leaves
which are useful as food to man and animals. Examples are tomato, pepper, onion,
cabbage, etc.

e. Fruits: these are plants with edible fruits which supply vitamins and minerals to man and
animal. Examples are orange, banana, pineapple, pawpaw, etc.

f. Beverage plant: these are plants which part e.g. fruits, seeds, roots or leaves are raw
materials for beverages, drugs and stimulants. Examples are coffee, kola, tobacco, etc.

g. Spices: These are plants with properties such as sweet odour and flavour in foods and
some serve medicinal purposes. Examples include onion, pepper, thyme, curry, ginger,
garlic etc.

h. Oil plants: they are plants rich in oil storage in their fruits and seeds. The oils are used for
cooking, lubrication, soap making, etc. Examples include palm oil, shea butter, coconut,
groundnut, etc.

i. Fibre crops: these are plants rich in fibres used as raw materials for making cloth, ropes,
sacks. Examples are jute, sisal, cotton, etc.

j. Latex crops: there are crops with sticky fluid in them i.e. latex which is used for making
rubber and para-rubber materials (synthetic products). Examples are rubber, pawpaw.

k. Forage crops: these are plants and fodder crops rich in carbohydrates, protein, minerals
and vitamin. They are used to feed livestocks. Examples are grasses, legumes, etc.

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C. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LIFE CYCLE

Plants are grouped into three categories on the basis of the duration of their life cycles or life span.
The number of years a plant is able to grow, mature and produce fruits and die. These are
summarized in the table below:
TABLE 1.3: CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS BASED ON LIFE CYCLE

CLASSIFICATION LIFE SPAN OR NUMBER OF EXAMPLES OF PLANTS

YEARS SPENT

1. Annual crops One year or planting season Maize, rice, yam, melon,
tomato, etc.

2. Biennial crops Two years or planting season Pepper, carrot, onion, ginger,
etc.

3. Perennial crops Above two years (three, four Cocoa, mango, orange, palm,
or more years) etc.

SUMMARY

The classification of plants on the basis of structure, function and life span has increased the
knowledge of plant production.

The botanical classification comprises of the thallophyta (alage) and embryophyta (bryophyta and
tracheophyta). Tracheophyta are the ferns (pteridophyta) and seed plants (gymnosperms) and
angiosperms while the agricultural classification includes the cereals, pulses, tubers, vegetables,
fruits, oil plants, etc. On the basis of life cycle, plants are grouped into annual (one planting season),
biennial (two planting seasons) and perennial crops (more than two planting seasons). This
understanding has led to the proper identification and utilization of crops and other plants. The
knowledge of several scientists (botanists) has broadened while breeding of plants species and
preservation from extinction intensified.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1 Angiosperms and gymnosperms belong to the class

b. Schizophyta
c. Spermatophyta
d. Pteridophyta
e. Bryophyte
2 Which of the following plants is a dicotyledonous plant
 b. Wheat
c. Millet
d. Groundnut
e. Yam
3 One of the similarities between algae and mosses is the possession of
b. Chlorophyll
c. Root
d. Leaf
e. Stem
4 Plants that complete their life cycle in one growing season are refereed to as
b. Perennials
c. Annuals
d. Uni-annuals
e. Biennials
5 Which of the following is not an annual crop?
b. Rice
c. Pepper
d. Maize
e. Tomato
6 The following are fibre crops except
b. Cotton
c. Jute
d. Hemp
e. Cocoa
7 Which of the following is not a vegetable?
b. Okro
c. Bitter-leaf
d. Hibiscus
D. Spinach
2. Which of the following is not a root crop
a Cassava
b Cocoyam
c Coconut
d Carrot

ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS

 a. B
b. C
c. A
d. B
e. B
f. D
g. C
h. C

NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE

Nutrients like carbon, oxygen, water, sulphur, oxygen, e.t.c. in nature which is brought about
by chemical and biochemical processes.

OXYGEN CYCLE
Oxygen cycle involves the circulation of oxygen between the living organism and
non-living things like fuel, water, e.t.c.
Process of oxygen cycling
During photosynthesis, green plants make use of the atmospheric carbon dioxide to
manufacture their food e.g. photosynthesis. This process in return releases to the atmosphere
oxygen and water.
On the other hand, oxygen removed from the atmosphere during respiration of
animals, combustion and decay by plants and animals.
Importance of oxygen cycle
1. It ensures continuous availability of atmospheric oxygen.
2. It makes carbon dioxide present for plants photosynthetic process.
3. It ensures purification of air and prevents pollution.
4. Oxygen cycle ensures continuity of life and activities.

NOTE: Photolysis of water is the chemical process in which water in the environment/soil is
being broken down by sunlight/sun ray.
This can also in turn release oxygen to the atmosphere.
Reasons why atmosphere oxygen should be kept in balance
There is need to strike a balance between the atmospheric oxygen and carbon content. The
balance of the two is connected with the processes of photosynthesis, respiration and
combustion.
A decrease in atmospheric oxygen level by 2 -8% does not cause any significant
effect; but a slight increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide may cause a green house effect
(GHE) i.e. increase in the retention of sun’s radiance (heat) energy.
Other reasons may include;
i. To ensure continuity of oxygen dependent lives.
ii. To ensure continuity of oxygen cycle and its related cycles.
Draw oxygen cycle
CARBON CYCLE
Carbon cycling involves series of process which contributes to the circulation of
carbon in nature.
Processes of carbon cycling
 Green plants (producers) remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by
photosynthesis to manufacture their food.
The carbon of carbon (iv) oxide is incorporated into sugar and other complex organic
compounds in plants tissues which is ingested by animals (primary consumers).
The materials are then digested, absorbed into the abiotic environment as faeces or
urine.
The atmosphere takes/gain carbon through:
i. Burning of fuel like coal, wood and fuel.
2. Respiration by organisms (plants and animals).
3. Diffusion of carbon (iv) oxide by seas and other water bodies acting as reservoir for
carbon (iv) oxide.
4. The action of volcanoes which releases carbon (iv) oxide.
Importance of carbon
1. It purifies the atmosphere and maintains atmospheric level of C02
2. It enhances processes such as photosynthesis and respiration.
3. Organic matter from carbon helps to replenish the soil nutrients.
4. It maintains the functioning ecosystem by linear flow of energy.

DIAGRAM OF CARBON CYCLE

WATER CYCLE
Water cycling is mainly by the evaporation and condensation in the abiotic environment. The
water evaporating from the surface of the river, ocean, lake and the soil in form of vapour
rises, cools, condenses and falls (precipitation) back to the earth, in form of rainfall, dews,
snow, e.t.c. In this way, water returns to the seas, river, lakes, streams and soil. Plants and
animals absorb water from the external environment. Some plants loose water to the
environment by transpiration and decomposition. Others lose water by respiration, excretion
and decay when dead. Hence, water is not in continuous circulation in nature.
Importance of water cycling
TO PLANTS:
1. It is a vital constituent of plants protoplasm.
2. It aids plants growth
3. Water serves as raw material for photosynthesis
4. It aids transportation of materials, nutrients, hormones.
6. It aids plants excretion.
7. It is a medium through which gases diffuse in and out of the cell
TO ANIMALS:
1. It forms the main constituent (90%) of protoplasm, body fluid, blood and lymph.
2. As medium of transport for nutrient, hormones and chemicals.
3. As solvent for removal of excretory products e.g. ammonia.
4. As a component of secretion
5. As a medium of biochemical reactions e.g. homeostasis, thermoregulation.
Conditions which enhances water cycling
1. Condensation
2. Evaporation
3. Transpiration
4. Absorption of water by plant roots.
5. Erosion
6. Decomposition and excretion in plants
7. Precipitation

Diagram of water cycle

NITROGEN CYCLE
The nitrogen cycle consists of several processes such as: Nitrogen fixation,
nitrification, denitrification, decomposition, ammonification, e.t.c.
The atmospheric occur is composed of 78 -79% of nitrogen in gaseous form.
Process of nitrogen cycling
1. Nitrogen fixation process: Nitrogen fixing microorganisms (bacteria) are able to
change gaseous nitrogen directly into proteins. These free- living bacteria are mainly
azotobacter and clostridium. They obtain energy from the breakdown of carbohydrate in
humus. While the symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium which is found in the root nodules of
leguminous plants use gaseous nitrogen to manufacture amino-compounds and proteins
which they share with the host plants (leguminous roots). These bacteria get the energy
needed for nitrogen-fixation from the breakdown of carbohydrates in the hosts’ tissues.
NOTE: When the host plant dies, the amino compounds in the root nodules are converted to
soil nitrates.
2. Electric Discharge (Thunderstorm):
During thunderstorm, nitrogen reaches with oxygen to form nitric oxide. Nitric oxide
is oxidized to nitrogen peroxide which dissolves in raindrop to form nitric and nitrous acids.
On entering the soil, they combine with other mineral salts for form nitrates which is later
washed into the soil by rain and absorbed by plants. The nitrates are then converted to plant
protein.
3. Non-symbiotic process: These processes involve the denitrification, ammonification
and decomposition processes.
AMMONIFICATION: Involves formation of ammonium compound from the dead remains
of plants and animals and their waste products such as urine, faeces, e.t.c
This process is immediately followed by nitrification.
NITRIFICATION: Involves conversion of ammonium compound into nitrite by nitrosonomas
through a process called oxidation and later into nitrates by nitrobacter.
DENITRIFCATION: This process involves the conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas by
certain bacteria. This nitrogen later escapes into air.
NOTE: Denitrification is the only stage through which nitrogen can be lost from soil
Summary of nitrogen fixing process at the soil
1. Through nitrogen fixation
2. Through thunderstorm and lightening
3. By putrefaction/ decay of organic matter
4. By nitrification
5. By application of natural fertilizers
6. Application of manure, animal dungs, green manure and poultry dropping.
Processes which lead to nitrogen loss in the soil
1. Denitrification by actions of denitrifying bacteria.
2. Absorption of nitrogen by plant roots.
3. Leaching action which is removal of chemical substance from the soil.
Decomposition in nature
 Decomposers are fungi, bacteria, mushroom, cockroach, e.t.c. which live
saprophytically or feed on dead remains of plants and animals which later leads to recycling
of nutrients by breaking down organic matter.
Decomposer’s are in two groups:
1. Micro decomposers
2. Macro-decomposer
Importance of nitrogen plants
1. Synthesis of chlorophyll through chloroplast
2. Synthesis of amino salts in the soil
3. Synthesis of proteins
4. It enhances plant growth
5. It enhances nuclear division of tissues or cells

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

The major source of interaction among organisms in an ecosystem is through food

relationship leading to various forms of associations and adaptations among organisms within
an ecosystem. These include predation, symbiosis, commensalism, parasitism and
competitions. Therefore, proper management of ecological systems and resources which
enable organisms to live successfully in their environment should be understood and
managed.
BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

These are interactions among organisms of same or different species of organisms for
survival.

There are categories of associations of organisms namely;

1. Intra-specific association; this involves the relationship between organisms of same
species.
2. Inter-specific association; this involves the relationship between organisms of
different species.

TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS

4. Predation: this is a type of association between two organisms of different species in

which one organism feeds directly on the other. The predator feeds on the prey.
Examples of predation or predator-prey relationship include
i. The hawk and chicks of domestic fowl
ii. The wolf and sheep.

iii. Cat and rat.

iv. Lion and antelope

v. Domestic fowl and cockroach. Etc

Predation as an association benefits the predator and causes harm/death to the

prey.
5. Symbiosis: symbiosis is a close association between two organisms of different
species temporarily or permanently living together for specific benefits or survivals.
Each member is called a symbiont.
Symbiosis may be beneficial to both members (mutualism) or beneficial to
one in the association and of no effect to the other (Commensalism).
Examples of mutualism includes
i. Lichen – (algae and fungus) relationship: the algae, a green plant
manufacture food while the fungus provides enclosure and protection from
physical damage and drying up.
ii. Root nodules and the nitrogen fixing bacteria (Rhizobium
leguminosarium): the root nodules provide accommodation and supply of
nutrients while the bacteria fix nitrogen directly into the soil for the plant to
use.
iii. Bacteria In the Intestine of ruminant herbivore (e.g. sheep): the herbivores
provides food and shelter for the bacteria and the bacteria helps in the
digestion of cellulose to sugar and also synthesize amino acids and vitamins.
 iv. Mycorrhizae and vascular plant roots: Mycorrhizae (fungi) helps to transfer
phosphate and other nutrients from inside the soil to the roots of the plants
while plants provide food (carbohydrates) to the fungi.
v. Cattle and cattle egrets: cattle provide food (the ticks, an ectoparasite found
on cattle skin) while the egret helps in removing the parasites on the body of
the cattle.
vi. Flowers and insects: flowers supply food (nectars) to the insects while the
insects help to pollinate flowers for sexual reproduction to take place.

vii. Hermit crab and sea anemones: the hermit crab provides food for the sea
anemones while the sea anemones on the crab shell scare away predators from
the crab (gives protection).
Examples of commensalism includes

i. Remora fish and shark: the remora fish (small fish) lives in close association
with the shark to obtain food from the leftover foods eaten by the shark. The
remora fish is able to obtain food while the shark neither benefits nor harmed.
ii. Human and intestinal bacteria: certain bacteria in the large intestine of
human feed on the digested food (leftover) and obtain shelter but the man
neither gains or lose (unaffected).
iii. Oyster and crab: the oyster shell protects the crab in its shell while the oyster
neither benefits nor harmed.
Parasitism: parasitism is a close association between two organisms of different species in
which one organism (parasite) live and feed i.e. benefits from the other organism while the
other organism suffers (host). Examples of parasitism are
i. Human (man) and tapeworm: the tapeworm (an endoparasite) lives in the
small intestine of human where it obtains shelter, food and protection. The
human (host) suffers by losing digested food nutrients to the tapeworm
resulting in anaemia.
ii. Mistletoe and flowering plants: the mistletoe is a plant parasite; it lives on
bigger flowering plants and obtains food and water by penetrating its roots
into the tissues of the flowering plant (host). The mistletoe is also raised in the
position to receive sunlight while the flowering plant suffers by losing its
nutrients (food, water and mineral salts) that are absorbed by the mistletoe.

Note; assignment on the types of parasites with examples i.e. facultative,

obligatory etc
4 Saprophytism; saprophytes are mainly decomposers that lives and feed on
dead and decaying remains of plants and animals.

TOLERANCE

Tolerance is the ability of living organisms to withstand or endure slight unfavorable changes
in their environment which can affect their survival or well being.

The law of tolerance states that the distribution of a species will be limited by the
environmental factors for which the organism has the narrowest range of adaptability.

TOLERANCE RANGE

This is the space within the minimum and maximum limits in which an organism can
withstand a certain environmental changes so as to survive. For example, some animals live
within the minimum temperature limit of 0°C and the maximum of 42°C; below 0°C or
above 42°C, they may die, lethal temperature range temperature, rainfall, light intensity,
salinity and soil factors.
GEOGRAPHIC RANGE OF ORGANISM

This constitutes the plants and animals species which can only be found in a habitat that are
within the minimum and maximum limit of its tolerance. The geographic range of organism
is illustrated below:
FIGURE 7.1: GEOGRAPHIC RANGE GRAPH OF
ORGANISM

ADAPTATION
Adaptation is the extent to which the structure, function, physiology and behavior of an
organism fits or changes in order to adjust or survive in its environment.

TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS

Adaptations are observed in modifications in structure, function, form and behavior of

organisms. They are genetically controlled characteristics that ensure the chance of living
successfully and reproducing in a habitat.

The types of adaptafreeossess gills for gaseous exchange in water.

i. They possess tail (muscular) for swimming in water.
ii. They possess swim bladder for buoyancy (floating in water).
iii. Fish has scales on its body for protection.
iv. Fish has lateral line for detection of vibration in water.

v. Fish has large and wide eyes for viewing a wide area for predators.

2. Adaptation to terrestrial habitat e.g. mammals (man) and reptiles (lizard)

i. They possess lungs for gaseous exchange.
ii. They possess strong limbs for movement.
iii. They possess hairs or fur (mammals) for regulation of temperature or scales
(reptiles) for protection and to prevent evaporation.
iv. The (mammals) possess sweat gland for excretion and cooling.

Adaptation of parasites (Tapeworm)

I. Ability to cling to the host’s body surface.
 II. Ability to secrete enzymes to dissolve tissues, and enable entering into the
host
III. Tapeworm possesses burrowing structure.
Note that many endoparasites enter into their hosts through wound and natural
openings such as mouth, anus, stomata.

Structural adaptation for;

a. Toad
i. The toad possesses special olfactory organs in the head for
perceiving the odour of food.
ii. It has the ability to draw in its eyes and bulges in the root of the
mouth to prevent the escape of their prey, also for swallowing.
iii. It has a long and sticky tongue to latch on and hold the prey.

for protection and defence (Toad)

i. Toads possess slimy skin with mucous gland which makes it
slippery.
ii. It has poison glands on the skin which is poisonous to the
predators.
iii. It has brownish colours (cryptic colour) to make it blend with
the background and this prevents enemies from identifying it.

for obtaining food (Toad)

iv. The toad possesses special olfactory organs in the head for
perceiving the odour of food.
v. It has the ability to draw in its eyes and bulges in the root of the
mouth to prevent the escape of their prey, also for swallowing.
vi. It has a long and sticky tongue to latch on and hold the prey.

Assignment; 1 Adaptations of birds (for flight,)

2 Types of feather in birds.

Adaptations of bird

For flight;
i Wings and feathers cover a large surface area of their boy.
iii. Possess light body as bones are hollow.
iv. Air sacs are connected to wings to ensure rapid supply of oxygen
v. Possess powerful chest muscle for propulsion.
Bird: bird possesses beaks and feet to catch, grip and tear food before swallowing it as shown
below.
 Note, feathers in birds are of different types and modified for specific functions;
1 Contour feather: These are overlapping feather covering the body of birds,
each consist of a central stalk or shaft, hollow part called quill and a
distal solid part (rachis).
2 Down or plumule feather; these are soft fluffy with short shaft and tuff
hookless barb. They are found under the contour feather, they act as an
insulator.
3 Filoplume; these are the small, fine feathers, commonly called hair. They are
sparsely distributed around the body.

PLANT ADAPTATION
hydrophytes are plants that lives in an area of adequate and surplus water.
e.g. water lettuce.
mesophytes are plants that live in an area of moderate amount of water e.g.
maize. Xerophytes are plants that live in extremely dry areas e.g. date palm,
baobab, Arabic gum, etc.
5. Adaptation of plants to aquatic habitat:
i. They possess waxy cuticle on leaves to prevent wetting e.g. water
lettuce.
ii. They possess long stem and flowers for better exposure e.g. water lily.
iii. They have air spaces in the tissues for floating (buoyancy) e.g. water
lettuce.
iv. They have aerial roots for gaseous exchange e.g. white mangrove.

6. Adaptation of plants to terrestrial habitat:

i. Plants that live on land possess thick and waxy cuticles to avoid
transpiration (water loss).
ii. They possess broad root system for support and absorption.
iii. They possess thick bark for protection against mechanical injury.
iv. They possess many leaves for photosynthesis.
Structural Adaptation in Insects: the structural adaptation for feeding in insects is based on
the mouth parts they possess (Fig 7.3)
i. Biting and chewing insects: e.g. cockroach, termites, locust,
etc. They possess strong mandible and maxillae which enable
them to bite and chew their food.
ii. Piercing and sucking insects: e.g. mosquito, aphids, capsids,
cotton stainer, etc. They posses long, tube-like mouth part
called proboscis which enable them to pierce the food cover or
surface and suck the liquid content. Some sucking insects do
not require sucking and piercing instruments e.g. housefly and
butterfly.
iii. Boring insects: these insects are capable of boring into the
food products and eat up the content e.g. weevil.
FIGURE 7.3: A, B & C: FEEDING MOUTHPARTS OF COCKROACH, MOSQUITO
AND BUTTERFLY

i. Insectivorous plants: they are plants which entrap and feed on some
insects to obtain mineral/nitrogenous substances. Examples are sundew
(Drosera), bladderwort (Utricularia).
i. Bladderworts: bladderworts live in ponds or streams and
possess sensitive hairs near a trap door which normally close
when an insect touches the sensitive hairs.
Drosera: drosera (sundew) bears leaves with tentacles that secrete a clear, shiny and sticky
liquid. The liquid attracts insects which rest on the leaf while the leaf curls. As the insect
struggles and stimulates the tentacles which bend over and trap it, the tentacles secrete
enzymes which digest the insects and the products of digestion are later absorbed by the
plants.

SUNDEW (DROSERA) AN INSECTIVOROUS PLANT

ADAPTIVE COLOURATION

This is the possession of a colour by an organism which enables it to secure its preys (food)
and escape from its predators or enemies. Some of the colours in the adaptive colouration are
as a result of certain pigments in the cells such as chlorophyll (green), melanin (yellow or
black) and carotene (yellow or orange), anthocyanin (red, blue and violet) and xanthophylls.

Adaptive coloration may be classified into these groups:

a. Concealing or cryptic colouration: it is used in camouflage. It helps an organism to

remain unnoticed by its predator or prey.
i. Grasshoppers matches the grass making it difficult for lizards or birds to
identify them.
ii. Green snakes with green grass.
b. Warning coloration: this colouration scares away the predators by their unattractive
colours.
i. Black and yellow by wasps.
ii. Black and yellow colour of variegated grasshoppers.
c. Mimicry: this is the resemblance of an animal, a mimic to another different object,
the model because of their similar colours and patterns of the bodies. e.g.
the stick insect resembles (mimics) a dead twig.

d Counter shading: this is the possession of two distinct colours (dorsal and ventral) by
an organism to blend with its environment and escape its predator’s sight. E.g. tilapia.
e Change of colour: this is the ability of certain animals to change the colours of their
body surfaces to match their environment thereby making it easy to escape detection by their
enemies. E.g. chameleon, grasshoppers.
f Mating colouration: this is used in securing mates.
Adaptive colouration in plants helps in, pollination, feeing and ‘’’’’’’

3. BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATION

Behavioural adaptation in animals

a. Behavioural adaptation for protection from predators

i. Hiding in bush area e.g. bush rat.
ii. Swaying in the air e.g. bat.
iii. Remaining motionless e.g. snail
iv. Secretion of irritating liquid e.g. toad
v. Secretion of offensive odours e.g. beetles
vi. Feigning death e.g. millipede.
vii. Swelling up e.g. toad.
Behavioural Adaptation for unfavourable weather

i. Hibernation: hibernation is a state of sleep-like inactivity and greatly reduced

metabolic rate to survive a long period of low temperature (winter). For example
insect eating bats wake and eat in warm days.
ii. Aestivation: this is a period of inactivity observed in some animals during a period of
heat or drought. For example, lung fish and crocodiles hide in the mud or crevices
until next rainy season.
iii. Migration: this is the movement of some animals from one place to new habitats
where the conditions are more favourable. For example, the cattle egrets move from
north to south of Nigeria during dry and rainy seasons.

Behavioural adaptation in plants includes; phototropism, dormancy, shedding of leaves,

death of vegetative parts, nastic movement, coiling response of leaves.

POLLUTION
Pollution is the release of toxic or harmful substances into the environment by any natural
forces or man and other animals to an extent that causes damage to man and his resources.

Pollutants are materials and energy that cause pollution. They are divided into three viz:

1) Biodegradable
2) Non-biodegradable and
3 Poisons.

BIODEGRADABLE: these are organic products that are broken down by natural processes
e.g.
excreta.

NON-BIODEGRADABLE: these are materials that cannot be broken down by natural

processes e.g.
Glass, plastics, tins, cans, scraps of metals.

POISONS: these are heavy metals and their salts e.g. lead mercury, uranium, fertilizers,
fungicides, etc.

TYPES OF POLLUTION

There are four main types of pollution. These are

 a. Air pollution
b. Land\soil pollution
c. Water pollution
d. Noise pollution

AIR POLLUTION

The principal air pollutants include smoke and soot, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide,
sulphur dioxide, dust particles, radioactive rays, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and
chlorofluorocarbons.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1 it causes air borne diseases.
2 It causes green house effect.
3 It reduces the yield of crops. E.g. sulphur dioxide.
4 Fluorides are harmful to herbivores as it damages their teeth and bone and
prevent grazing leading to death.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution can be controlled through the following methods:

1. Burning of smokeless fuels.

2. Locating industries away from industrial areas.
3. Use of chimney filters in industries.
4. Addition of less dangerous chemicals to petrol instead of lead.
5. Burning of refuse in incinerators.
6. Passing industrial air pollutant through filters and absorbers.

WATER POLLUTION

Activities of man that pollute water bodies are:

1. Dumping of household refuse or organic wastes in water.

2. Oil spillage from drilling or tankers.
3. Thermal pollution, hot water from industrial plants and atomic reactors.
4. Dumping of agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, etc.
5. Radiations or radio-active fallouts from nuclear plants washed into water bodies.
6. Untreated sewage dumped into water bodies.
7. Use of dynamites/explosives for fishing.
8. Use of chemicals (Grammalin/DDT) in fishing.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

Effects of water pollution on organisms are:

1. Destruction or death of valuable aquatic species such as fishes, sea birds, etc.
2. Food chain is affected or disrupted.
3. Pollutants encourage bacterial growth leading to reduces amounts of dissolved
oxygen.
 4. Causes algal bloom which prevents light penetration to the lower depth in water.
5. Water is rendered unsafe for domestic, drinking or recreation use.
6. It also leads to death of underwater animals.
7. It obstructs navigation – water transportation.

PREVENTION/CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

Measures for preventing or controlling pollution of water bodies are:

1. Treatment of raw sewage before discharging into water.

2. Prohibition of disposal of human wastes into water bodies.
3. Refuse must be burnt or buried and must not be deposited into water bodies.
4. Recycling of industrial waste before discharging them into water.
5. Proper sewage treatment.

6. Limiting the use of pesticides and fertilizers.

7. Efficient method of preventing oil spillage.
8. Proper education of farmers on correct usage of fertilizers to limit run-off into water
bodies.
9. Enactment/enforcement of laws to prevent the use of explosives and chemicals in
fishing.

Assignment; method of purifying water, euthrophication and its causes.

The methods of purifying water are:

I. Boiling
II. Addition of chemicals e.g. alum and chlorination
III. Filtering
IV. Distillation
V. Sedimentation and boiling
VI. Sterilization e.g. by using ultra-violet light.
EUTROPHICATION

Excessive growth of plant life/algae/algal bloom in water bodies caused by an increase in

organic nutrients and minerals, leading to the death of aquatic organisms is known as
eutrophication.

Causes of eutrophication
 Overuse of fertilizers/plant nutrients which drain off into water bodies.
 Sewage discharge.
 Wastes from fish farming.

LAND POLLUTION

The major land pollutants are : i) Refuse ii) Sewage (iii) Agro-chemicals such as fertilizers,
pesticides, fungicides, etc. (iv) Non-biodegradable such as metal scraps, glass particles, etc.
(v) Chemical wastes from industries (vi) Oil spillage.

EFFECTS OF LAND POLLUTION

1. It cause offensive odour through decay of refuse.

2. Pesticides used to kill crop pests also harm useful soil bacteria and other soil animals
that aerate the soil.
3. The use of large amounts of inorganic fertilizers make the topsoil dry and fine so that
it is easily blown away by winds.
4. Garbage dumps are health hazards as many animal pests and vectors of diseases live
and breed there.
5. Excess agricultural chemicals, oil and petroleum products discourage the growth of
plants on the land.
6. Metal scraps and glass wares occupy land space. They are also unpleasant to the
human eyes.
CONTROL OF LAND POLLUTION
As to control of water pollution.

NOISE POLLUTION

The production of sound vibration of irregular frequencies or overtones is called noise.

When the noise is discharged directly into the atmosphere to cause harm to man, it is
referred to as noise pollution.

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

There are various sources and effects of noise pollution, among which are the following:

1. High intensity sound emitted from:

i. Industrial machines used in factories and industries, quarry activities/
construction sites.
ii. Aviation by aircrafts/aeroplanes
iii. Locomotive engines/railway engines
iv. Automobile engines/motor vehicles, car horns, siren, gun firing, bomb
explosion, artillery firing.
v. Mills- grinding mill saw mills.
2. Electrical/electronic sounds arising from
i. High pitched musical sounds/loud speakers or drumming.
ii. Electronic gadget/generators
iii. Thunder noise.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Causes loss of hearing/deafening/hearing difficulty.

2. Results in emotional disorder, anxiety.
 3. Leads to high blood pressure/hypertension.
4. It cause general irritation/short temperedness
5. Causes changes in behaviour.
6. It can cause boredom/tiredness and headache.

PREVENTION/CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Legislation against the use of loudspeakers in public places.

2. Education or public enlightenment on the harm done to humans by noise pollution.
3. Siting factories, industries, military sites away from residential areas.
4. Use of soundproof or silent generators.
5. Use of earmuffs by workers in quarries, airports and factories where noise levels
cannot be reduced.
6. There should be ban on the use of heavy guns and sirens.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. The recycling method of solid waste disposal is unsuitable for

A. Organic matter
B. Glass
C. Plastics
D. Metal scraps
2. The excessive use of agrochemicals could lead to the pollution of
A. The lithosphere
B. The atmosphere
C. Freshwater
D. Space
3. Sources of air pollutants are:
A. Industrial chimneys, burning fossil fuels and river dams
B. Sulphur dioxide, acid rains and pesticides
C. Sulphur mines, vehicle exhausts and aerosols
D. Sewage, smoke and old vehicles.
4. Which of the following cause pollution?
A. Consumption of canned drinks.
B. The addition of fertilizer to farmland
 C. Respiration of living organisms
D. Burning of refuse
5. Air pollution can be reduces by the following methods except
A. Building tall factory chimneys
B. Passing waste gases through filters and absorbers.
C. Using lead-free petrol in cars.
D. Recycling tins, cans and bottles.
6. The association in which one member benefits and the other suffer loss by the
interaction is termed
A. Symbiosis
B. Parasitism

24
 Commensalism
C. Mutuation
7. Which of the following is not an endoparasite
A. Lice
B. Ascaris
C. Tapeworm
D. Flukeworm
8. One of the following is an example of commensals
A. Mistletoe and mango tree
B. Remora fish and shark
C. Mosses and fern
D. Legumes and mitrosomonas

ANSWERS TO REVISION QUESTIONS

1. A
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. D
6. B
7. A
8. B

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Conservation means the wise use, management and maintenance of natural resources
for present and future use, quality maintenance, value and diversity control.
Some of the natural resources to be conserved may include: forest/vegetation,
wildlife, water and mineral resource.
Natural resources can be renewable i.e those that are recoverable or non-renewable i.e
those that cannot be regained after use. Examples of:
* Renewable: these are mainly naturally occurring materials such as minerals, oil, coal,
petroleum, bauxite, tin, gas, copper, e.t.c.
AGENCIES OF CONSERVATION
1. FEPA: Federal environmental protection agencies concerned with preservation of
wildlife/forestry.
2. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
3. Nigerian Conservation foundation
4. SEPA: State Environmental Protection Agencies
5. RBDA: River Basin Development Authorities
6. Environmental Sanitation Authorities
WAYS OF ENSURING CONSERVATION
To ensure proper conservation of natural resources, the agencies leave been scheduled
into sections of:
i. Legislative agencies: These groups make laws, edicts or decrees to regulate the
process of conservation and usage of natural resources.
They also administer and review appropriate punishment to defaulters of natural
resources wastage.
ii. Educative Agencies: are those who inform and educate the populace of the need,
effect and reasons for conservation. They also make known the hazards of wastage of natural
resources.
METHODS OF CONSERVING:
1. WATER
i. Adequate control and use of ground water
ii. Irrigation to reactivate area that lack adequate water.
iii. Control of water pollution by legislative agencies.
iv. Research centres should be encouraged to improve recycling.
2. SOIL
i. Ensuring preservation of soil fertility by the application of manure/fertilizers.
ii. Governments should make laws that control erosion
iii. Planting of trees to manage desertification
3. WILD LIFE
i. Limiting hunting process
ii. Strict laws should be made to govern wildlife
iii. Establishment of national parks.
iv. Game-farming should be adopted
v. Provision for artificial stock keeping.
4. MINERAL RESOURCES
i. Recycling process is the treatment of already used natural resources e.g metal scrape
BENEFITS OF CONSERVATION
1. It improves quality of life
2. It preserves the nature and beauty of life
3. It improves scientific world of research
4. Aids survival of lives; human, animals, plants.
5. Creation and establishment of game reserve, tourist centre, recreational centres.
6. It preserves forests which serve as site researches.
7. It improves the quality of living factors e.g food, oxygen, temperature, clothing, et.c.

PROBLEMS AND DIFFICULTIES ASSOCIATED WITH

CONSERVATION

1. Soil erosion caused by natural wind, rainfall and run-offs

2. Land ,air and water pollution.
3. Occurrence of natural disasters like floods and earthquake
4. Overgrazing caused by domestic livestock
5. Indiscriminate hunting leading to eradication of wildlife
6. Indiscriminate bush burning and felling of timber leading to eradication
of wildlife.
7. Indiscriminate fishing leading to eradication of aquatic life.
8. Adoption poor farming methods e.g bush fallowing, shift cultivation and
continuous cropping leading to nutrient depreciation in soil
9. Oil spillage leading to loss of terrestrial and aquatic life