STUDIES IN PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TOURISM Vol. 12, No.

2, 2005
Table of Contents
THE MOST IMPORTANT GAMES IN EPIRUS FROM CLASSICAL TO ROMAN TIMES: THE NAIA AND AKTIA GAMES ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION THE MOST IMPORTANT GAMES IN EPIRUS The Naia The Aktia Games REFERENCES

PART I HISTORY AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT EVANGELOS ALBANIDIS, HELEN MORAITI Democritus University of Thrace Correspondence should be addressed to: Evangelos Albanidis, E-mail:

THE MOST IMPORTANT GAMES IN EPIRUS FROM CLASSICAL TO ROMAN TIMES: THE NAIA AND AKTIA GAMES
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION THE MOST IMPORTANT GAMES IN EPIRUS

The Naia The Aktia Games REFERENCES

Key words: Epirus, games, the Naia, the Aktia, Victors in Epirus.

ABSTRACT
Epirus is a region in Greece famous for many important historical events from Classical to Roman times. Epirus boasts rich athletic traditions following the remaining Greek regions. The aim of this paper is to study the impact of each of the eras on the games of Epirus, by analysis of archeological evidence and inscriptions and collecting data regarding the games organization, participants, prizes and agonistic content. Our sources of information included ancient written texts, inscriptions on statues, coins, archeological records, the minutes of the Archeological Association of Athens and various archeological publications on Epirus. The most outstanding Epirian games in terms of glamour, prestige and athletes participation were the Naia of Dodone during the Hellenistic era, between the 3rd century BC and the end of 4th century AD; and the Aktia of Nikopolis in Roman times, from 28 and 27 BC until the end of 3rd century AD. Archeological findings, depictions on coins as well as records of athletes and Olympic victors show the tremendous role physical education played in peoples lives in Epirus.

INTRODUCTION
Epirus was a crossroads between Greece and the West. Thanks to its geographical location the inhabitants of Epirus could make extensive contacts with other, mostly Western peoples, and enhance trade in their region. However, Epirus was also one of the first regions to experience an invasion from the west. During the classical period the geographical boundaries of Epirus included the Haonia region (present-day Northern Epirus), Thesprotia (present-day Thesprotia extending to the Amvrakikos Bay), the Molloson-Pasaron region (present-day Ioannina prefecture) and Amvrakia (present-day Arta prefecture) [16, p. 992]; to the east the territory of Epirus extended to the Aliakmon river and the Erigon river valley [3, p. 152]. These boundaries changed during Roman times, when two separate districts were established: Old Epirus in the south (covering the original territory) [5, p. 141] and New Epirus in the north, with Dyrrachio as its seat, covering the whole coastal zone of the Macedonia district on the Adriatic coast [3, p. 158]. As an integral part of the Greek world, Epirus followed the rest of the Greek regions in copying Greek athletic habits. Epirian athletes participated in the Panhellenic sacred games. Luigi Moretti mentions four ancient Olympic victors from Epirus [22, pp. 524, 525, 643, 704]. During classical times, games were particularly glamorous; the victors were granted great honour and eternal fame. During Hellenistic times, after the Macedonian military campaign, the Greeks came in contact with other peoples. This contact definitely brought about significant changes to the games, following the emergence of professional athletes. After the Roman conquest, the character of the games changed as well. Spectacle was priority, but it did not mean that the athletic component of the Greek games ceased to exist.

The aim of this paper is to make a record of Epirian games, provide information on athletic findings and identify athletes and Olympic victors from Epirus. Our primary sources comprised written texts by ancient authors (Athenaios, Strabo, Herodotus, Lucianus, Cassius Dion, Byzantios Stephanos), inscriptions found in various athletic venues (stadiums, gymnasiums), inscriptions on statue pedestals, honorary inscriptions and coins from archeological excavations. As secondary sources we used archeological records, the minutes of the Archeological Association of Athens and other publications concerning the area. The ancient Greek inscriptions can be found in Dodone et ses ruins by Constantinos Carapanos [4, pp. 40, 45, 55-56, 64], who made a thorough study of Dodone, the venue of the Naia Games. Other inscriptions included the ones recorded by archeologists, Demetrios Evaggelides [10, 11, 12], Sotirios Dakaris [6] and Pierre Cabanes [2]. Theodoros Sarikakiss excavation in Nikopolis was also of great significance. His significant findings provided us with useful information about the religious and social life of the area as well as an overall picture of the particularly honoured games of the Aktia [26]. The coins found at the excavation sites and exhibited in archeological museums are presented in Maria Karamesini-Economidous book Nikopolis minting [18, pp. 41-49, 161, 163].

THE MOST IMPORTANT GAMES IN EPIRUS

The Naia

In ancient Greek tradition, according to Herodotus (II, 52), the Dodone oracle was considered to be the oldest in Greece. Various offerings (tripods, bronze pans, hydriae) to Naios Zeus worshipped in Dodone, allowed us to conclude that in the 6th and 7th centuries BC a number of pilgrims from all over the Greek world visited the oracle, either to be illuminated on their problems or to show respect to Dodone Zeus. As Stephanos Byzantios mentions in his Ethnic Language s.v. Dodone and Dodonaion called Nation the Naia, or Naa, games were held every four years [17, II-II2, 3147-3150, 3152]in honour of Naios Zeus. The word naios, according to Ioannis Stamatakos, is a derivative of the verb naio (intransitive) meaning to inhabit a place [28, pp. 6, 17-18]. The word naios is derived from the verb neo and, according to Chrysa Souli, it means to flow, to rain, to water. It is an indication that Naios was the god of spring and god of moisture which penetrates the soil and renders it fertile [27, p. 9]. It is not known, however, when the games were established for the first time. The oldest inscriptions in Dodone which mention the games officials date back to the end of the Epirian Treaty (340-232 BC) and are not older than the 3rd century BC [4, pp. 45, 55-56; 10, pp. 248-250]. Most likely, the games were established during Pyrrhus reign (297-272 BC) [6, 18] and they were certainly celebrated with glamour, after a theatre for teaching tragedies was constructed as well as a stadium (late 3rd century BC) for the games, and when the temple was renovated with the addition of a sacred house and other temples. Due to lack of sources, it is very difficult to provide an accurate account of the Naia. Most evidence dates back to the Hellenistic period and it was at that time that the first games started to be recorded. It does not mean, however, that there had been no such games earlier. When the Naia were included in the Stefanites Games (most likely in the second decade of the 2nd century BC and, in particular, in 192 BC) [2, pp. 76-79], the victors were awarded an oak wreath [19, p. 419], which was the sacred symbol of Dodone [9, p. 88]. This was due to the fact that the sacred oak tree was considered to have magic powers and was a means through

which the divine will was revealed. It is well known that the oak tree is frequently struck by lightning and Ancient Greeks considered a lightning-struck spot to be sacred. It is, therefore, no wonder that the oak tree was worshipped or linked to the worship of Zeus in Dodone. As Demetrios Evaggelides [11, pp. 248-250] mentions, before the Naia games were declared Stephanites games they were probably money or object games. This can be evidenced by hydrias, flasks and pans on tripods found in Dodone, which were probably the prizes for winners. Various inscriptions, no older than 3rd century BC, found in Dodone mention game officials such as the Naiarch, Agonothetes and others who were responsible for the proper organization of the games. An inscription referring to a Naiarch was found on a carved plaque and was published in Dodone et ses ruines by Constantinos Carapanos [4, I, pp. 55-56, 161]. The Naiarch must have been an Epirian office, whose etymology might suggest a high priest of Naios Zeus. Constantinos Carapanos states that this inscription dates back to 168 BC or even later. Pierre Cabanes, on the other hand, believes that the Naiarch was not the Naios Zeus high priest, but the organizer of the games, and was in charge of one or more agonothetes [2, p. 61]. The agonothetis is the most frequently mentioned official in Dodone. He was a master of ceremony in charge of all the festivities. The agonothetes could have been elected and were assisted by helpers for the best conduct of the games [30, col. 1584-1585]. This office was initially mentioned in a single inscription carved on a bronze plaque and published in the Dodone et ses ruines by Constantinos Carapanos [4, I, pp. 64. 25, 1370]. It dates back to the mid-2nd century BC, probably sometime after 167 BC, judging by the shape of letters. It is of special interest due to its reference partly restored to Naia officials, who were the Naios Zeuss judges and possibly also the agonothetess helpers aiming at the proper conduct of the games [30, col. 1585]. This is the only reference to them in an existing inscription. A reference to an agonothetis is also made in two inscriptions carved along the edges of two bronze vessels, published by Constatinos Carapanos in Dodone et ses ruines [4, I, pp. 45. 25, 1371]. They date back to the 2nd century BC. Moreover, two other inscriptive texts found in Dodone and published by Demetrios Evaggelides [10, pp. 248-250] in The Epirian Chronicles make reference to an agonothetis. The first inscription being a slaves liberation act is carved on a rectangular bronze plaque and gives a great deal of information. Sotions liberation was granted during the Naia in the month of Apellaeos, when Korithos from Kestrini (a region of Haonia, to the north of Epirus) was an agonothetis. The month of Apellaeos in Macedonia corresponds to November, but in Epirus where it is generally colder, the Naia may have been held in late September or early October. The above mentioned act was issued in year d, which is difficult to interpret, since it is the only case such a year is mentioned in any Epirian inscription. It must have been a date closely related to a significant event in the history of Epirus, which, according to Evaggelidis [10, pp. 248-249], was the countrys destruction by Pavlos Emilios in 167 BC. This might indicate that the text dates to 164 BC. Pierre Cabanes [2, p. 58] assumes that the liberation act was issued during the fourth year of the agonothetis Korithoss term of office. It can, therefore, be concluded that an agonothetiss term of office was a year long, but it started after the games ended and lasted until the following games began. We can assume that the Naia, according to the above inscription, were held every five years. The second text in the Epirian Chronicles by Evaggelides [10, p. 252] is an extract from a stele found in Dodone, which mentions an agonothetis being undoubtedly a son of Lysanias. This inscription dates back to the Roman period. Dakaris [6, p. 36] published one more inscription mentioning an agonothetis, carved

on a statues pedestal in Dodone, which was erected to honour Augustuss wife Livia. This inscription dates back to Augustuss era. Another inscription found in the Castle of Ioannina, copied by Kyriakos of Ancona, refers to an agonothetis, Poplius Memmius Leon, who was also an agonothetis in the Aktia [29, p. 512; 8, pp. 11-12]. This inscription dates back to 241/240 AD, i.e. the 68th Aktiada, 268 years after the 1st Aktiada were held in 27 BC. The Naia included nudist and drama games and most probably music competitions and chariot races. An inscription dating back to the mid-5th century BC, published by Constantinos Carapanos [4, I, pp. 40. 25, 5786], was carved on a tripod found in Dodone and mentions an epic poet (rhapsodist) who devoted the tripod to Naios Zeus. It cannot serve as a proof that music competitions were actually held during the Naia. The inscription does not mention the rhapsodists name or the competition he won. Perhaps this tripod was devoted to Naios Zeus by an entrant who won in a music competition in another area. The inclusion of chariot races was witnessed by Athenaios (5. 203a), who stated that chariots owned by Ptolemaios Soter and his wife Vereniki took part in the games. The drama competitions were held in the Dodone theatre, which was one of the largest theatres in Greece. These competitions became known thanks to an inscription by Teggeas in Arkadia [2, p. 63; 17, V, p. 118]. An unknown competitor was praised in two drama plays, Archelaos by Euripides and Achilles by Haerimon, which have not survived to date. This inscription may date back to the period after 219 BC. The Naia nudist games were held in the stadium to the west of the theatre. In the eastern part of the stadium a sling was situated. Athletes age categories in the Naia included children and men. The oldest inscription mentioning a victory in the Naia of Dodone was found in Sikion, in the foundations of the theatre stage on a statue pedestal [21, pp. 107-108]. The victor was Kallistratos, a son of Philothaless. Kallistratos won in wrestling, boxing and pankration competitions in childrens category in the same year, whichwas an outstanding feat. Another reference to these games can be found in Athenas temple in Priene [2, p. 67]. Philios, Thrasivouloss son, was honoured by the people of Priene because of his victory in pankration in the childrens category in the Naia. An inscription on a statue devoted to Delian Apollo by Athenian Menodoros mentions a son of Gnaeos [21, p. 132] who won twice in the mens category in the Naia wrestling and pankration. This inscription probably dates back to between 146 and 130 BC [2, p. 69]. Another inscription from Athens [17, III3, pp. 13181319], similar to the one in Delos, also refers to victories in the Naia. It is assumed [2, pp. 6971] that this inscription was put up to remind the Athenian people of the victories achieved by the same Menodoros, Gnaeoss son. A recently found inscription from an unknown place makes reference to the Naia games and a victor in the pentathlon, who may have been Athenian and whose name remains unknown [17, II-III2, p. 3152; 17, V2, p. 118]. Most probably it should be dated to the period between the times of two above mentioned inscriptions, that is between 146 and 130 BC [2, p. 71]. As for the year when the Naia became Stefanites games, it can only be assumed by the information included in an inscription from Tenos. This inscription was unearthed in 1978 by Roland Ettienne in the islands major temple devoted to Poseidon and Amphitrites. It was in bad condition, and the shape of the letters allows us to conclude that it dates back to the early 2nd century BC. The inscription consists of two texts. The first one is a letter by the Koinon of Epirus, which states that the leader of the athletes group was Harops the Senior (Thesprotian

Opatos, a leading figure in Epirus) and also includes the introduction to the second text. The second text refers to the results of an embassy [2, p. 74]. Harops the Senior, prominent in Epirus for a long time after the Aetolian invasion in 219 BC, embarked on a journey to the Peloponnesus, Evoia and the Aegean Sea as an official religious ambassador with a view to achieve recognition of the Naia as Stefanites games. During his journey, various political issues were discussed besides the games themselves. There are two interpretations of Haropss journey. According to one, he made two journeys: first to the Peloponnesus and Evoia and then back to Dodone, and next to the Aegean Sea, which in ancient times was rather time consuming. The other interpretation, a more plausible one, claims that Harops went on those journeys successively and then returned to Dodone. That journey must have taken place between 219 and 191 BC, when the Dodone temple was in its prime [2, pp. 7678]. Considering the above data, it was in the second decade of the 2nd century BC or probably in 192 BC, when the Naia were declared Stefanites games similar to the Olympics or the Pythia held every five years, although there are no inscriptions confirming it. As for the new character of the Naia, such a conclusion can be drawn from the fact that they were recognized as Stefanites games held every four years, and were mentioned in various inscriptions alongside with other sacred games, enjoying respective honours attributed to those games [2, p. 78]. Elean settlers in Epirus, who were undoubtedly philoroman, were in charge of the Naia during the Roman period, a privilege they were awarded thanks to their cooperation with the Romans [8, p. 18]. It is assumed that the games continued until the end of 4th century AD, when the ancient rituals of worship in Dodone died out.
The Aktia Games

Aktios Apollo was mainly worshipped in places near the Amvrakikos Bay and was closely connected to important events that took place in Amvrakikos, such as setting up Corinthian colonies and the naval battle of Aktio. A reference to Aktios Apollo is also made in the Argonautika by Rhodios Apollonios (403-404). Apollo had been worshipped along the coast (akti in Greece) since the epic times, hence Apollos name of Aktios or Emvrasois. Apollos temple, which initially belonged to Anaktorio, a Corinthian and Corfu colony, was turned into a federal temple of the Akarnanian people in about 216 BC and continued to be their major religious centre ever since. According to a decree found in Olympia, financial difficulties made the Anaktorio authorities hand the supervision of the temple over to the Koino of the Akarnanian people, who guaranteed its funding as well as proper organization of the games [23, p. 9]. The Aktia were divided into the Old and New Aktia. The Old Aktia, which were Stefanites games, were held by the city of Anaktorio to honour Aktios Apollo every year, from at least the 4th century BC near the Cape Aktio of Akarnania. According to Strabo (VII. 7. 6. 325) these games were held by the periikoi, which means they were of local character. The naval battle of Aktio on 2nd September 31 BC between the fleets of Mark Anthony and Octavian, the later emperor Augustus, was of great significance not only for the Roman Empire, but also for the fate of mainland Greece [13, p. 118]. The worship of Aktios Apollo continued until imperial times, and following the establishment of Nikopolis (the city of victory) [18, p. 40] by Octavian, Aktios Apollo became its protector god, since Augustus

attributed his victory to him. Ancient written tradition does not specify the exact year of the establishment of Nikopolis and the New Aktia. Theodoros Sarikakis claims that it may have been sometime between 28 and 27 BC, 27 BC being the most likely date since it was the year when Octavian was named Augustus. The most significant indication of the precise date of the first Aktia is attributed to Tidman. She was the first to rely on an excerpt from Silvae by the poet Statius, which had been largely neglected until that time. According to Tidman, the poet expressed pleasure at his attending the Sevasta of Neapolis and gave an account of the athletes departure for the Aktia of Nikopolis, where they would compete next. The Sevasta of Neapolis and the Aktia of Nikopolis were held in the same year. Since the Sevasta were established in 2 AD, the Aktia must have been held for the first time in 27 BC [23, p. 11]. Strabo, in his 7th volume of Geographika (7. 6. 325) informs us that outside the city of Nikipolis there was a gymnasium, a stadium and an Apollos temple. His reference agrees with archeological findings [20, p. 205]. The New Aktia began on the 2nd of September, on the anniversary of the naval battle of Aktio. There is no information regarding the exact place the games were held. We can assume that during the first years, before the construction of Nikopolis was completed, the games were probably held in Aktio. However, after Nikopolis was established, according to Strabo (VII.7.6.325), the games were held outside the wall surrounding Nikopolis and inside the sacred wood, where a gymnasium and a stadium had been built for this particular purpose. This is confirmed by the agonistic inscriptions of the five annual Aktia games. The people of Lacedoemon were in charge of the New Aktia. This favouritism towards the Lacedaemones by Octavian was a kind of reward for their leaders policy during the civil wars, and Euricless policy in particular, who had offered his assistance to Octavian from the very beginning. The New Aktia, just like the old ones, were also Stephanites games of greater importance and prestige, however, thanks to Octavians support. In the Aktia, as in the Naia, there were some officials in charge of the proper organization of the games. Inscriptions make reference to the Aktian parliament, agonothetes, synthytes and xystarches. The Aktian parliament was in charge of the organization of religious ceremonies of the games. One inscription mentions the name of Tiberius Claudius Cleomachus as an official of the Aktian Parliament [26, p. 153]. Other inscriptions make reference to two agonothetes. The first inscription [8, pp. 11-12] was found in Ioannina and mentions the agonothetis Poplius Memmius Leon during the 68th Aktiad (244-248 AD). The second one [17, IV, 964] refers to the agonothetis Timocratus, a son of Kyreina Flavianus. Synthetes were those who made sacrifices to the god during the games. Xystarches were the officials of the xysto, the wrestling field or the gymnasium, but also professional athletes acting as chairmen of athletic guilds and unions. A xystarchis was the only official appointed by the Roman Emperor and kept his office for life. That is why he was called a lifelong xystarchis [1, p. 166], as it was also referred to in one of inscriptions [26, p. 158]. According to Dion Cassius (51.1.2), the New Aktia were a nudist agon as well as one of music, horse race and a five-year sacred one. The inclusion of music competitions was a novelty as they did not exist in the Old Aktia. It was probably due to the impact of the Naia, which were held close to Nikopolis, or to the peoples willingness to honour Apollo (who was the god of music). Apart from music, there was also another difference between the Old and New Aktia. The Old Aktia were reportedly held annually, whereas the New Aktia were held every four years.

The New Aktia were Stephanites games, equal the Olympics with regard to honours. Sources do not state clearly what tree or plant was used to make an Aktian wreath. Only through the study of coins may we be able to find out this particular information. The coins of Nikopolis depict various kinds of wreaths, the most common of which was made of straw. The laurel wreath was less common. Particularly interesting was a kind of wreath made probably of apples. Since earlier times, apples had been offered to athletes as awards in games, e.g. in the Pythia of Delphi, according to Lucianus (Anacharsis, 888), as the sacred fruit of the god. As both the Delphi and the Nikopolis games were held to honour Apollo, an apple wreath may have been a quite popular award [18, p. 40]. The nudist games of the New Aktia included light and heavy events. The light events consisted of stadion, diavlos, dolichos and hoplitodromos. Jump, javelin and discus were the pentathlon events. Heavy events were wrestling, boxing and pankration, not only for men but also for beardless youth and children. The pentathlon was an event for adult men and beardless youth [24, col. 1213-1214], since no inscription has been found mentioning childrens pentathlon. As it was mentioned above, the Aktia probably included equestrian and naval games as well. The port of Aktio was used as a naval port by Octavian. It was there where Octavian had arrayed his fleet just before the battle [7, p. 110, f.2]. Music and literary competitions included a varied programme of music and literary events such as competitions of trumpeters, heralds, guitar singers, criers (who trained the voice and assisted the competitors of music games), flutists, pantomimes, poets, sophists (teaching grammar, mathematics, rhetoric and politics for a fee), tragic poets (singing odes) and comic poets [26, p. 152]. The Aktia gradually acquired fame and athletes from many parts of the Mediterranean world took part in them. Inscriptions found in many areas attest to the fact that athletes flocked to participate in the Aktia of Nikopolis. Such inscriptions were found in mainland Greece (Sparta, Argos, Nikopolis), on the islands (Mytilini, Tenos, Cyprus, Kos), in Syria (Antiochia, Laodikia), Egypt (Alexandria, Ermoupolis) and Asia Minor (Smyrne, Laodikia, Adana, Ephessos, Kivyra, Miletos, Nikomedia, Xanthos, Magnesia, Sinopi, Sardes, Philadelphia), which reveals the great value and fame the Aktia of Nikopolis achieved [26, p. 155]. The three age groups: children, beardless youth and men, participating in the games [26, pp. 150-151] were not clear-cut [15, p. 154], hence any conclusions may be precarious [14, p. 105]. An inscription mentioning Titus Flavius Archivius, an athlete from Alexandria, may help us conclude that the childrens group in the Aktia included children aged between 13 and 17 years [21, pp. 183-184, no. 68]. The Aktia were considered period games. A period is a cycle, a successive series of four sacred games in antiquity: the Olympia, the Pythia, the Isthmia and the Nemea. However, it is not known when the Aktia were included in the period games. An inscription from the 1stcentury AD [26, p. 161] mentions Pagles (probably from Tenos) as a periodonikes. An inscription mentioning a victory of Avrelius Septimius Irenaeos dating from the early 3rd century AD refers to the Aktia as period games [26, p. 158]. Generally, they are placed in the period between 1st and 2nd century AD. It is worth mentioning that in many agonistic inscriptions the games are mentioned in the following order: Capitalia, Sevasta, Aktia. This order is probably not random. Athletes who wished to participate in all three games first competed in the Capitolia in Rome (in July), then went to Neapolis for the Sevasta (in August) and finally to Nikopolis to compete in the Aktia (in September).

The Aktia acquired a great deal of fame and they set an example for other areas in the Roman Empire besides Nikopolis. In Rome, during the celebration for Poppaias birth (63 AD), an agon called Aktia was held. Equal to the Aktia, games were also held in Antiochia, Pontic, Heraklia, Augusta Caesaria and Macedonia [24, col. 1214]. The Aktia games are also mentioned in other cities (Ankara, Alexandria, Antiochia, Vostra, Damaskus, Thessaloniki, Ierapolis, Phrygia, Neocaesaria, Nikomedia, Perinthos, Sardes, Tyros) [24, col. 1211]. The Aktia were held until the end of 3rd century AD, possibly interrupted during Caligulas times (37-41 AD). When Emperor Loukianos ascended the throne (360-363 AD) he reestablished the games, although we do not know for how long.

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