NET Group Theory 1 Page 1

Def. Group: Let G be a non-empty set with a binary operation , hen G is called a group w.r.t.
if following postulates are satisfied :

() Associativity : (a*b)*c=av(bec) for all a, b,c G.

(ii) Existence of identity : There exists an element ee G, such that a e = a= e a for all ae G.
(iii) Existence of inverse :For every ae G, there exists an element b e G such that a * b=e= b a
Here, b is called inverse of aand is denoted by a-!.
Def. Abelian group: A group G is said to be abelian (or commutative) ifa * b= b far all a, be G.
Remark : The word 'Abelian' is after the name of great mathematician [Link].
Def. Finite and Infinite groups : Ifa group Gconsists of a finite number of elements, then it is called a
finite group, otherwise it is called an infinite group.
Def. Order of a group : The number of elements in a finite group iced the order of the group. An
infinite group is said to be of infinite order. Order of agroup is denofed by oft) or |G|.
Examples :
1. Z, ={0,1,2,..,.n-1} is an abelian group w.r.t. +, of order n.
2. U(n) = {m :1Sm<nand ged(m, n)=) is an abelfan group under x, of order (n).
Basic Results :

In a group the identity element is uniqy

In a group every element has a uniquo inverse.
9. If G is a group then (a) = a foretl ae G.
4. Let G be a group then (ab) = b'a' for all a,beG.

S. If a,b,ce Gthent ab ad b= c. This is called left cancellation law.

6. If a, b,ce Gthen ba= ca b= c. This is called right cancellation law.
7. In the eomposiion table of a group, cach element of the group appears exactly once in cach row and
eachçolunmn.
Déf. Subgroup : A non empty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G ,if H itself is a group
w.r.t. thesame binary operation as in G.
Def. Proper and Improper subgroups : For a group G, the set (e} and G are always subgroups of G and
are called improper subgroups ofG. Any other subgroup [other than G and (e}] is called a proper subgroup
of G.

Remark : Some authors also define a proper subgroup to be a subgroup other than G.
 Results on tubgroups:
d The identity of any subgroup of agroup in the same as that of the group
!. The inverse of any element of a subgroup ia the same as the inverse of (hat element in group.
a,be |
3. Anon empty subset H ofa group G ina mubgroup of G if andonly if ab'eH for all
H
4. Anon enpty finite subset H of agroup G is asubgroup of G if and only if ckosure holds in
ie. a,be H > abe H.
$Intersection of two subgroups of agroup is again asubgroup.
6. The union of two subgroups of agroup is asubgroup if and only if one is contained in th¿ other.
Def. Let Hand Kbe two subgroups of agroup G, then HK =(hk :he H, keK). Sirgilarly kH mayhe
defincd.
9. Let H and K be two subgroups of G then HKis a subgroup of G if andonlyiIK- KH.
o)o(K)
8 IfHand Kare finite subgroups of agroup Gthen o(HK) = o(HnK) where o(H) is the order of H.

. LaGbe agroup and Hbeasubgroup of Gthen xá'=(xheG,he #} is also asubgroup of

G.

Def. Order of an element : Let G be agroup and ae Gthen order of 'a' is defined as the least positive
integer nsuch that
d'= 1,ifthe operationis multiplication.
ti) na =0, if the operation is addition.
(11) a*a*.... a(ntimes)=e if the operation is *.
We then write o(a) =n or la=n. If there exists no such n, then a is said to be of infinite order or zero
order.

Results on order of a gróup:

I. Let G be a group andegG such that o(a) =n then d=e if and only if m is a multiple of n.
Z. Let Gbe a finite groúp and aeG then o(a)/o(G).
3. Let Gbe afinite group and ae G then a = e.
4The order of anelement and its inverse are same i.e. for any ae G, we have ola) =oa )
5. For any a,xe G, ola) = o(r ar)
6. For any a, be G, oab) = o(ba).
Let a and b be two elements of inite order of a group G. If god(o(a), o(b)) =1 and ab =bu, then
o(ab) = o(a) o(b).

Let a be an element offinite order of agroup Gand kbe any positive integer then o{a)= o(a
gcd(k.o(a)
 Lagrange's Theorenm : Lct G be a finite group and H be asubgroup of G then o(H) divides o(G).
Results on abelian groups :
1. Ifagroup Gis abelian then (ab)" =a'b" for al! a,beG and for all integers n.
2. Agroup Gis abelian iff (ab)' =ab' for all a,beG.
3. Let Gbe a group and a =e for all aeG then G is abelian.
4. Agroup Gis abelian iff (ab) =ab for all a,be G.
5. Let G be a group and (ab)" = d"b" for all a,b eG and three consecutive integers thhen Gs abelian.
6. If (ab)" = a"b" holds for two consecutive integers mthen Gneed not be abelian,
7. Let Gbe a group such that ab=ca implies b=c, then Gis abelian. In words, i gross cancellation law
holds in a group then it is abelian.
8. Agroup is abelian iff ith row and ith column in the composition táble are same for all i.
z, is abelian for all positive integers n.
1Ð. U(n) is abelian for allpositive integers n.
Def. Cyclie group : Agroup Gis said to be cyclic ifRere exists an clement ae Gsuch that every element
of G is of he form d', where n is an integer. Thecleyrent 'a' is then , called agenerator of Gand we
write: G= <a> or (a) St
Results on cyclic groups :
KEvery cylic group is abelian.
2 Everysubgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3 If 'a' is a generator of acyelíggroup G, then a is also agenerator of G.
4Y The order of asycliegroupisequal to the order of its generator.
S/Ifa finite group oforder n contains an clement of order nthen the group must be cyclic.
6 Every group ofprimeorder is cyclic .
1 Eyery infinite cyclic group has exactly two generators.
sThenumber of generators of afinite cyelic group of order n is ¢(n) , where denotes the Euler's ¢
functión.
9 Let Gbea finite cyclic group such that o(G) =n and G= <a> then a" will be generator ofGif
and only if gcd(m , n) =1.
10. Let ae Gsuch that o(a) =n then o(d) =ola') iff god(n, i) = gcd(n, j).
 WA group of primeonder has no proper subgroups.
2.A non tivial group Gwhich has no proper subgroups must be agroup of prime order.
[Link] of Lagrange's theorem is true for finite cyclic group. In words, let G=(a) be afinite cycle
group such that o(G) = n. Let d/n then G has a subgroup of order d. Further the subgroup of op
dis unique and this subgroup is given by (a).
N Totalnumber of subgroups of afinite cyclic group of order nis tn), the number of divisors of D
[Link] Gbe cyclic group of order n and d be a positive integer which divides n, then Ghas d) elenen
of order d.

L6. Let Gbe a finite group and dbe apositive integer which divides o(G) then nu1ber ofyclic subgroup
of order dis humber ofelements of order d

. 2, is cyclic for all positive integer nand an integer kis a generator o® t gcd(n, k) =l.
18. U() is cyclic iff n=lor 2or 4orp" or 2.p" wherep is an oddprime and mis apositive integer.
19: U(2") is not cyclic for n3.
Def. Centre of a group : Let Gbe a group then centre the group Gis defined to be subset of all
elements of G which commute with every elerment of G and it is denoted by Z(G). In symbols,
Sta
Z(G)={aeG:a=xa for all xin G}.
Results :
4 Z(G) is a subgroup of G.
Gis abelian iff G=Z(G)
3. Le,G be a group and ae then in the composition table of G the row and column headed by 'a
are same.

4. As Z, and I(n) are abelian groups so they are centres of themselves ie, Z(Z,) =2, and
zUm)EOO
DetKlein's fouY group :Agroup of order four in which every element is self-inverse or every non-identity
elemen is of order 2 is called Klein's four group. Symbolically, K,={e,a,b,c} such that
ab =ba=c, bc =ch =a, ac =ca=b and a =b' ==e.

Exercise 1.1

1. In the groups Z,,1Sns20

(i) Find inverse and order of each element and construct the O-D table.
 Theory 2 Page 9
Permutation : Aone-one onto mapping from a sct to itself is callcd a
Renmark : IfS is a finite set having n clements then permutation.
nof Permutation group or clcarly there are n! permutations.
Symmetric group : Ifa sct S has nclements, then the set of alln!
ernutations on S forms a group under composition of
Symmetric group of degree n and is denoted by P, or permutations
, called Permutation group or
S,. ademy
Example :

1. S, =

2 3 2 3) 2
3 2 1 3
2. S =
2 3)
3 3 1 2)
Def. Cyclic permutation or cycle : A permutation which can be
cxpresed in one row such that image of
each elenent is next element and image of last element is first
provided fixed elements are skipped is
called a cycle.
Def. Length of a cycle : Number of elements permuted by the cycle or number of elements in its
one-row
representation is called length of that cycle. A cfcle ofength kis called k-cycle.
Note : Acycle remains unaltered if its elernents are changed in cyclic order.
Def. Transposition : Acycle of length two is called a transposition.
Def. Disjoint cycle : Two cycles are said so be disjoint if they have no common element in their one-row
representation.
Results :

1. The symmetriegroups S, S and Ss,when their elements are written in one-row representation , are
given as
S,
L2), 3).(23) . (123) , (132)}
, (12), (13), (14), (23), (24), (34), (123),(124), (132) .]
SA = (134), (142), (143), (234), (243), (1234), (1243) .(1324),
((1342), (1423), (1432), (12)(34), (13X24), (14)(23)
Disjoint cycles always commute with each other.
V
Non-disjoint cycles may or may not commute.
 10
4 Inverse of a cyele can
be obtainod by everting its elemcnts or by keeping first element unehangod
vorting remaining ones.
$ Onder of amcycle isn.
o =o0,.,where o,s are disjoint cycles, then o(o) - lcm (o(o,,oo,)..°,):
7. Every pemutation can be expressod as aproduct of
disjoint cycles.
S tvery cyele can be expressed as product of transpositions in infinitely many ways. However, nunber o
transpositions in any decomposition of acycle remains either always even or always odd.
Def. Even and odd permutations : A permmutation is said to tbe even (odd) ifit can be exprefscaspr uc
of even (odd) number of
transpositions.
Def. Inversion of a permutation : Let o e S, be
permutation and let o = o) o2y o3) o(n)
Then inversion of a symbol i is denoted by inv(i) and is defined as inv) number of symbols less tha

o)and right to o) and inversion of permutation o is defined

asfnv(g2inv(i).
1 2 3 4 5 6
Example : Let o= Then inyH 1, inv(2)=1, inv(3) =0, inv(4) =3,
(2 3 1 7 6 5
inv(5) =2, inv(6) =1, inv(7) =0 and inv(c)
=ínv)=l+l+0+3+2+l+0=8.
Def. Signature of a permutation :Let any permutation then signature of o is denoted by
sgn(o) and is defined as sgn(o) =(
In the above example, sgn(c) =l' =1.
Results on signature :
K Signature of an even permuiaton is always 1.
Sigiature of an odd pemutation is always -1.
3. sgn(o) =saletyehn).
4. sgno)=ga(o).
Results
1. Apemutation can not be both even and odd.
2. A
cycle of odd length is an even pemutation and acycle of even length is an odd penutation.
3. Identity permutation is an even permutation.
4. Product of two even permutations is an even permutation.
5. Product of two odd pemutations is an even permutation.
6. Product of one even and one odd permutation is an odd pernutation.
 NET
Group Theory 2 Page
laverse of an even permutation is even and of odd permutation is odd.
n!
& In S,. there are always even permutations and n! odd permutations.
2
2

9. Let GeS, be a permutation corresponding to the partition

n=+4+..*,2+, +.tn t..t ,+n, t...+.n,. Then the number of elements in S,
a, tumcs
a, times
a, times
e m
n!
having same cyclic decomposition as that of G =:
nn...a, !a,!..a,!
corollary : The number of r-cycles in a symmetric group S, is given by P

10. The set of alleven permutations of S, forns agroup denoted by A, andis talled alternating group of
degree n. e.g.
A4 = ( , (123).(124), (132), (134), (142) , (143),
l(234), (243), (12)(34), (13)(24) , 4X23)
[Link] isa subgroup of S,, then either every member of Hs an even permutation or exactly half of them
are even.

12. Let a and ß belong to S,, then Baß anda are both even or both odd.
[Link] clement in 4, for n23 canbe e<pressed as a3-cycle or aproduct of 3-cycles.
14. If o is an-cycle then " is a product ofdcycles of length d
where d = gcd(m, n).
15. Let o and n be any penuatiegs in the symmetric group S,, then 'no has the same cyclic
decompositionas tha of
16. Centre of symmétic groups :

Gi) Z(S,) for n23

17. Centre of alternatinggroups :
i) Z4)=A, Z(4,) =A, Z(4) =A
(ü) Z(4,) ={) for n 24
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 Normalsubgroups and Quotient groups
Coset: Let G be a group and Hbe its subgroup. For
any element aeG, the set Ha =(ha: he H} is
called right coset of H in G, and the set aH = (ah : he H is
called left coset of Hin G. Note that if
Ae hinary operation in G is additive, then the right coset of H
in G is H+a = (hta: heH).
Similarly, the left coset is a-H= (a th : he H).
Results on cosets :
Let H be any subgroup of a group G, then
Ha=aH=H if and only if ae H.
Any two left (right) cosets of a subgroup are either disjoint or
identical ie. either alfbH Ñr
aH nbH =.
If H is a subgroup of a group G, then G is equal to the union of all
left (rightycosets of H in G.
WLet H be any subgroup of agroup G, then for a, be G, Ha =
fbAfand only if ab'e H.
Similarly alH = bH iff ab'e H.
5 Let H be a subgroup of a group G. The number of distinct Jeft coséts
ofH in G is equal to number
of distinct right cosets of H in G.
The number of distinct right (left) cosets of H iaG is called the index of H in G
and is denoted
by [G: H. For afinite group G, [G : H
o(H
Def. Normal Subgroup : A subgroup Hofa group G is said to be a normal sub group of G if Ha = aH
for all aeG i.e. right and left cosets of F are same for each element of G. We denote this
fact by HAG.
For a groupG,G and (e} are always normal subgroups of G and are called trivial normal subgroups.
Any other normal subgroup, ifexjsts, is called proper nornal subgroups.
Def. Simple group : A group is saido be simple group if it has no proper normal subgroups. In other
words, a group G i_said obe simple group if its only normal subgroups are (e} and G.
Example :The áltèrnating group 4,, n*4, is always asimple group.
Result A, snot simple group because it has a proper normal subgroup given by
VN4),(3X/24),(14X23)} .This subgroup is calted Klein's four group.
Results, pn normal subgroups :
A subgroup Hofa group Gis nornal ifand only if g'g eH for all he H, ge G.
2. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
3. Let Gbe any group and His asubgroup of Gsuch that, (G: H] =2 then His normal subgroup of G.
Lo accomplishgreat things, we must not only act, but also dream, not only plan, but also believe. - Anatole
 36

4. His anormal subgroup of Gif andonly if, Hatb - Hab for all a, be Gie. product of two riglht
cosets of Hin G is again a right cosets of Hin G.
5. Intersection of two normal subgroups of G is again anornal subgroup of G.
6. LcHI be anormal subgroup of G and K bea subgroup of G, such that, Hc KcG then H is a
normal subgroup of K.
i E
S a r ç a d e

. If Hand Kare normal subgroup of G, then HK is also anormal subgroup of G.

8. Let Hbe a normal subgroup of G
and Kbe a subgroup of Gthen HK is a subgroup of G.
Def. Centre of a group : Let Gbe agroup then centre of the group Gis defined to be the subget of al
elements of Gwhich commute with every element of Gand it is denoted by Z(G). In sybol
z(G)={aeG:a=xa for all xin G}
Results :

! Z(G) is a normal subgroup of G.

KGis abelian iff G=Z(G)
Def. Quotient Group : Let G be agroup and Hbe a norm¡lsubgroup of G. Define G/H =Ha : g[ G
as the set of allright (or left) cosets of Hin G. Now, let Ha, Hbe G/H, then the set G/H together
with the binary composition defined by, HaHb =Hf is agróup and is called the quoient group or factor
group. The identity element of G/H is H.
Results on quotient groups :
!. Every quotient group of an abelian group is abelian . But converse may not be true.
2. Every quotient group ofa cyclic group is cyclic. But converse may not be true.
3. If G is a finite group and H be anormal subgroup of G then o(G/H) = o(G) - (G: H).
o(H)
4. Let H and K beto normal subgroups of agroup G such that HcK, then K/H is a normal
subgroup of
5. Every subgroup gf GIH is of the form K/H where Kis asubgroup of Gand His anornal subgroup

6. Le/be anormal subgroup of Gand G/H be the quotient group, then order of alf in GIH divides
the order of a in G.

7. Let Gbe agroup and Z(G) be the centre of G. If GIZ(G) is cyclic then Gis abelian. Contrapositive of
this statement is that, if Gis non abelian then G/Z(G) is not cyclic. We can also express this fact as, if
GIZ(G) is cyclic then G=Z(G) i.e, GIZ(G) is trivial group.

Sometimes things become possible if we want them bad enough. - T.S. Eliot
 Homomorphisms
Def. Homomorphism: Let (G, ") and (G,o) betwo ogroups. Amapping f: G’G is called a
homomorphismif f(a+b)=f(a) of(b) for all a,be G. c a d m y

Definitions :
1. A homomorphism which is one-one is called monomorphism.
2. Ahomomorphism which is onto is called epimorphism.
Ahomomorphism which is one-one and onto is called isomorphism.
4. Ahomomorphism from agroup G to itself is called endomorphism.
Def. Kernel of a homomorphism : Let f: G’G be ahomomorphism, the keneofis defincod
by Kerf= {geG:f(g)=e'} where e is the identity of G.
Some results : Let f:G’G' be ahomomorphism then
respeçtiyely.
Kfe) =ewhere e and e are identities of G and G
va))"= f(a') for allae G. t a r

3. fla') =(f(a)' for allae G.

4. ifola)=n then o(/(a) divides n.
5. If f(a) =b then f(b)=a Ker fA
6. Kerf is a normal subgroup of
Wftobe one-one iff Kerf= e}.
)is a subgroup of G.
8 If H is asubgroup of G then
normal subgroup of G, then f(H) is a normal subgroup of G.
9 If H be a
isa cyclic subgroupof G then f(H) is acyclic subgroup of G'.
to. If H
subgroup of Gthen f(H) is a abelian subgroup of G'.
14fHis abelianr
f n then f is a n-to-l mapping from Gto f(G).
[Link](Ker
13. I o(1)=n then o(/(H) divides n.
fr(K)is asubgroup of G.
14. IfK is asubgroup of G' then
G' then f(K) is a normal subgroup of G.
[Link] Kis a: normal subgroup of
homomorphismsfrom Z, to Z, is gcd(m,
n).
Theorem : The number of understanding - Pluto
ordinance is mightier than
No law or
 40

Fundamental theorem of bomomorphism : Let f be ahomomorphism of Gto G hen G/Kerf is

isomorphic to f(G) ie, G/Kerf= f(G).
of

Every homomorphie image of a group G is isomorphic to some quoticnt group of G.

dent
Remark : ff is onto then G/Kerf f(G)=G.
Natural homomorphism /Canonical homomorphism : Let Hbe a normal subgroup of G. We deiea
mappingf:G+G|H by seting f(s)= Hg for all ge G, then fis aonto homomorphisnand erfH.
This homomorphism is called natural homomorphism.
or

Every nomal subgroup of a group Gis the kernel of a bomomorphism of G.

First theorem of isomorphism: Let f: G’G is a onto homomorphism and K is a normal
subgroup
of G and let K=f"(K), then G|K = G/K.
Second theorem of isomorphism : Let H and Kare two subgroups of G s.t. KAG, then
HK|K= H|HAK.
Third theorem of isomorphism : Let H and Kbe wonormál subgroups of Gs.t.
HeK,then
G|K =
Gyley's Theorem : Every group is isomòrphic to a group of permutations.
Results on number of homomorphism on finite cyclic groups :
1. The number of homomorphistm from Z to Z, is ged(m, n).

2. (i) The number of hombmophigá from K, to Z, =.|4 , if nis even

|1 , ifn is odd
(i) The number ofhomomorphism from K, to Q, is 4.
(ii) The number gf homomorphis from K, to S, =3 (No. of elements of order 2) + 6 (No. of
non-cyclic
subgroup oforder 4) +1.
ifn is even
3. (i) Thé number of homomorphisn from 2, to
|I , ifn is odd
(ii) The number of homomorphismfrom , to K, is 16.
4. (1) The number of homomorphismfrom S, to K, (n23) is 4.
(ii) The number of homomorphis from S, to Q,, (n23) is 2.

No law or ordinance is mightier thun understanding - Pluto

 54

Automorphisms
Def. Automorphism :Amapping f:G+Gwbere, Gis agroup under the binary operation * is called
an automophism if
(0 fisa honomorphism i.e, f()"y= f(W)"f), for all x,ye G
(ii) fis one-one
(ii) fig onto
Renmark :Au(G) denotes the set of allautomorphisms of agroup Gie, Aut(G) =f:f is an
automorphism on G}.
Def. Inner Automorphism1 : Let aeG be any fixcd element. The automorphism
de
T, :GAGgfíned by
T,()=axa for all xeG
iscalled an inner automorphism of Gcoresponding to the element 'a'.
Remark: Inn(G) denotes the sety of all inner automorphism of a group G
Results :

Y. The identity mapping is the only inner automorphism foran abelian

gfoup.
2. Let f:G’G be an automorphism and a,beG be any toy elements, then
@ o()=o(f(a) (ii) o(b'ab) =og)
3. Iffis an automorphism of agroup Gand aebe an element, then f(N(a))= N(f(a).
4. Inn(G) is anormal subgroup of Au(G)
5. Let Gbe a finite group and Z(G be ccntre of G. Then, GIZ(G) In(G).
6. Let Gbe a finite group and Z(G) beçeDtre of G. Then, Z(G) =0(i(G)).
7. IfGis an abelian group such that O(G) =n, where n is an odd integer greater than 1, then

o(Au(G))>1
8. If o(Au()er oG)>2
9. Let G beA finite gyclic group of order n, then O(Aut(G)) = (n).
10et Gbe an infinitecyclic group, then O(Aut(G)) =2.
11. For eyery positive integer n. Au(2,) =U(m).

Nolaw or ordinance is mightier than understanding - Pluto

 Page

Cauchy theorem for

Sylow Theorems
Result1 : finite abelinn groups : f Gis a
number, then there exists an
finite atelian group such that plolG) .pis
prime, element a(e)eG such hat a' -e ie.
.onverse of lagrange theorenm for finite abelian groups :1f Gis a da)p.
R 0 s i
S niga
A r
g a d e m

finite abelian group snd m/

mis apositiveinteger, then G has at least
one subgroup of order m. o(GAwhere
u:Cauchy theorem lor Tinite groups :lf Gis afinite group suchthat
there existssanclement of order pin G. plo(G) ,pis apemyerhen
leA: Sylow's first theorem : Let pbe aprime
nunber such that p"
then Ghas a subgroup of order p" lo(G)hermipositive integer,
Another statements of Sylow's first theorem :
ofany power of prine avids ne order of agroup G, then Ghas a
e Tf oG)=p'g ,where p is a subgroup)or order equal to that power of prime.
prime number and qis a positiva qteger suen that gcd (p, q) =
1 then Ghas
subgroups of orders p,p',...t.
Def. Sylowp - subgroup : Letp be a prime number such
nat p ivides o(G) and p does not divide G).
Then asubgroup of order p' is called a Sylow p-
gberouptG.
or

If o(G) = p'g wherep is a prime nu nbegcdp,q) =1,then a subgroup of order p is

subgroup of G.
called a Sylow p
or

Sylow p-subgroup of agroup Csabgroup whose order is p

where kis the largest power ofp such that p'
divides o(G).

or

Asubgroup ofGWcdllyda Sylow p-subgroup if its order is equal to the maximum power of p occurring in the order
of thep.
REsult 5-tIisa Sylow p- subgroup of G, then prove that xHx is also a sylow
xeG.
p-subgroup of Gfor any
Def. pgroup : Let p be a prime number. Agroup Gis said to be ap-group if order of every element of Gis
some
power of p. e.g. Q, =(l,-,i,-i,j,-j, kh, -k}
The group of quaternions is a 2-group because o(l) =2" o-1)=2, oi,-i,j,-j, k,-k) = 2
1.¬. order of every element of O, is a some power 2.
of
No law or ordinance is mightier than understanding - Pluto
 62
Result6 Afinite group Gis ap -group iff o(G)-p" fo some integer n.
Result 7: Sylow's second theorem: Any two Sylow p-subgroupa of afinite group Gare conjugates in (G.
Reruit 8: Sylow's third theorem :The number , of Sylow p- subyoups of afinite goup Gi 1s gven by
n, =l+kp such that 1+kp/o(G) and Ais anon -negative integer.
Reult 9: ASylow p- subgroup of afinite group Gis unique iff it is normal.
Def. Simple group : Agroup is said to be a simple group if it has no proper normal subgroups. In oher
R i s i
s n
k g
Aa r
c a d c t

words, a group Gis said to be simple group if its only nornal subgroups are (e) and G.
Result 10 : The alternating group A, , n 4, is always a simple group.
Result 11 : , is not asimple group because it has apropcr nornal subgroup given by
K= V, -{!, (12)X34) .(13/24), (14X23)). Thissubgroup is called Klein's four group.
Result 12: Sylow Test for Nonsimplicity: Let n be a positive integer that is not prime, anlet bea prime
divisor of n. If I is the only divisor of nthat is congruent to l modulo p, then there doefu exa simple
group of order n.
Result 13 :2-Odd Test : An integer of theform 2-n, where nis an odd numbergreajer than l, is not the
order of a simple group.
Result 14 : If G is a finite group of order <1000 and G is simple. If oG) not a prime then we must bave
o(G) =60 or 168 or 360 or 504 or 640.
Example1: Show that a group of order 28 is not simple.

Let o) =28, then show that group Ghas a normal _abroup of order 7.
Solution :We have o(G) =28 = 2.7. By Sylo irst heorem, Ghas Sylow 2- subgroups each of order 4and
Sylow 7- subgroups cach of order7.
By Sylow third theorem, the number n, of Syloy7 - subgroups is given by 1+ 7k such that
1+7k/o(G) 1+7k/28

1+7k/4 [Since (1 +7k,7) =1]

k= 0

Thus, n, =Iie theret uniqueSylow 7- subgroup say Hand o(H) =7

But weoy thatylow p- subgroup is unique iff it is normal".
Thus Hfnornal subgroup of order 7. Obviously His proper. Hence Gis not simple.
Example 2 Let G be agroup of order S'.7.11. Then Ghas how many
i) Sylow 5- subgroups
(ü) Sylow 7-subgroups
(ii) Sylow 11 - subgroups.
Tellwhether Gis simple or not.
No law or ordinance is mightier than understanding - Pluto
 Results:
R,CC are abelian groups under addition.
WThesets Z,Q.,R,
under addition with generators 1and
VZiscyclicgroup -1.
Q.R,C are not cyclic groups.
s
*c.Q,R* are abelian groups w.r.t. multiplication and allthese groups are non-cycie
s General linear group :The set Gl(n,F)=(la,la ay eF, detla,] 20, Fisafield) is agne
matrix multiplication and is known as general linear group.
group:The set SL(n, F) ={a,l,:a, eF, det[a,]=1, Fis Aieldfoup wrL matrix
6. Special linear
cac
multiplication and is known as special linear grou.
1 GL(n, F) and SL(n, F) are non-abelian groups when n>1.
8. o(oz(n:2,))=(p"-p-p)...p-).
9. o(sz(n4.)) =(p-p-p..p-1)
p-1

[Link] of general linear group is the set of all scá matrices in it. ie.
0
0 a 0
z(GL(n, F) - a0, a

11.

12. Centre of special linsar pitheset of all scalar matrices in it. i.,
0

a 0
z(sL :a =1,aeF
0 0 ... a

13. o(2.(n, C))=n.

14. [1 ifn is odd
|2 ifn is even

15. o(z(sz(n,z,)) =ged(, p-1).

No law or ordinance is migh tier than understanding - Pluto