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OF PERMUTATION
2
Theorem 1: Products of
Disjoint Cycles
PROOF:
5
6
Practice:
7
Please Answer Me
(19436782)
8
Practice
1. What is the disjoint cycle form of the product
(13)(27)(456)(8)(1237)(648)(5)?
(17324856)
For definiteness, let us say that 𝛼 and 𝛽 are permutations of the set
S = {𝒂𝟏, 𝒂𝟐, … , 𝒂𝒎 , 𝒃𝟏, 𝒃𝟐, … , 𝒃𝒏 , 𝒄𝟏, 𝒄𝟐, … , 𝒄𝒌 },
where the c’s are the members of S left fixed by both 𝛼 and 𝛽(there may not be
any c’s). To prove that 𝛼𝛽 = 𝛽𝛼, we must show that (𝛼𝛽)(x) = (𝛽𝛼)(x) for all x in S. If x
is one of the a elements, say 𝑎𝑖 , then
(𝜶𝜷)ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝜶(𝜷(𝒂𝒊 ) = 𝜶ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝒂𝒊+𝟏 ,
since 𝛽 fixes all a elements.(We interpret 𝑎𝑖+1 as 𝑎1 if i = m.) For the same reason,
(𝜷𝜶) ሺ𝒂𝒊 ሻ = 𝜷( 𝜶(𝒂𝒊 ))= ሺ𝜷(𝒂𝒊+𝟏 ሻ = 𝒂𝒊+𝟏 .
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Example:
(1,2)(3,4,5) (3,4,5)(1,2)
Can you
please give
an example
too?
12
Theorem3: Order of a
Permutation
The order of a permutation of a
finite set written in disjoint
cycle form is the least common
multiple of the lengths of the
cycles.
13
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2. |(1 3 5) (2 4)| = 6
--- ( 3 and 2; LCM is 6)
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1. = 6
2. = 6
3. =
16
Solution: By Theorem 3, count the number of permutations with disjoint cycle form
(𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) and (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ).
There are ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5)/3= 70 elements of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ).
For elements of 𝑆7 of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) there are ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5)/3 ways to
create the first cycle and (4∙ 3 ∙ 2) /3 to create the second cycle but the product of ( 7∙
6 ∙ 5)/3 and 4∙ 3 ∙ 2) /3 counts (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) and (𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) (𝑎3 𝑎2 𝑎1 ) as distinct when
they are equal group elements. Thus, the number of elements of 𝑆7 of the form (𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 )
(𝑎4 𝑎5 𝑎6 ) is ( 7∙ 6 ∙ 5) ( 4∙ 3 ∙ 2)/( 3∙ 3 ∙ 2) = 280.
This gives us 350 elements of order 3 in 𝑆7 .
To count the number of elements in 𝑆7 of the form say (𝑎1 𝑎2 ) (𝑎3 𝑎4 ) (𝑎5 𝑎6 ) , we
proceed as before to obtain (7∙ 6) (5 ∙ 4) (3∙ 2)/ (2∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3!) = 105. The 3! term in the
denominator appears because there are 3! Ways the product of three 2 –cycles can be
written and each represents the same group element.
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Theorem 4: Products of 2-
Cycles
Every permutation in
product of
2- cycles (also called transpositions).
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(𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐, … 𝒂𝒌 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 … 𝒃𝒕 )⋯ ( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 … 𝒄𝒔 ).
A direct computation shows that this is the same as
(𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝒌 )( 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝒌−𝟏 )⋯ (𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝒕 )( 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝒕−𝟏)⋯ (𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 )⋯ )( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒔 )( 𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝒔−𝟏)⋯
(𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 ).∎
Examples:
Transposition – a cycle of length 2 21
Ex. (1 2) (3 4) (2 3)
Note: Every transposition is its own inverse.
Example:
(12345) =
(15)(14)(13)(12)
Practice:
(1632)(457) =
(12)(13)(16)(47)(45)
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Lemma
26
27
where the and the are 2-cycles, the and are both even or both odd.
Proof:
Let 𝛼 = γ1 γ2 …
and γ𝑠
Show that are both even or both odd.
¿
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 … 𝛾𝑆
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 … 𝛾𝛽 𝑟𝑆−1 … 𝛽2− 1 𝛽 1−1
𝜀=𝛾 1 𝛾 2 …𝛽𝛾𝑟 …
𝑆 𝛽1 𝛽 2
Thus, the lemma guarantees that is even.
It follows that and are both even or both odd.
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even even
odd odd
Example:
Determine whether the following permutations are even
or odd.
1. 4.
2. (1 2 3 4) 5. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)
3. 6. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)
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Answer
1. (1 2 3)
(1 2 3) = (1 3) (1 2)
Answer
2. (1 2 3 4)
(1 2 3 4) = (1 4)(1 3) (1 2)
Answer
3. 3. ( 3 2 1)
Write in cyclic notation. Write in standard order.
( (3 2 1
= )( 3 1()3 2 )
()
−1
1 2 32
2 3 11
3
2
1
3 (
) 3
1 2
1
3
2 )
1
Decompose by writing it as a product of disjoint cycles.
( 1
3
2
1
3
2 )= (1 3 2) = (1 2) (1 3) 3 2
Practice:
Determine whether the following permutations are even
or odd.
1. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)
2.
3. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)
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Answer
1. (1 5 3 7) (2 6 4)
(1 5 3 7) (2 6 4) = (1 7) (1 3) (1 5) (2 4) (2 6)
Answer
2.
4. (4 3 2 1)
Write in cyclic notation. Write in standard order.
1
Decompose by writing it as a product of disjoint cycles.
4 2
( 1
4
2
1
3
2
4
3 )= (1 4 3 2) = (1 2) (1 3) (1 4)
3
There are three transpositions.
Answer
3. (2 4 6) (3 5 6)
(2 4 6) (3 5 6) = (2 6) (2 4) (3 6) (3 5)
Try This
Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd.
1. (125673) odd
2. (145)(8634)(46753) odd
3. (7561324)(879)(5416)(9876) even
4.
PROOF
Since is finite, let’s use the finite subgroup test: - symmetric group
L t…
𝛽 ∈ 𝐴𝑛 𝛽= 𝛽1 𝛽 2 𝛽3 … 𝛽 2 𝑙
2 ( 𝑘+ 𝑙 )Thus,
If and are both even, then is also even since it is an even number of 2-cycles followed by an even number of 2-cycles.
By Finite Subgroup Test, we showed that multiplication is closed for even permutations, and thus we have a subgroup.
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 42
Example: Elements of
𝑆 3= {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 13 2 ) , ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 2 3 ) }
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 44
• In general,
is a subgroup of if .
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 45
𝑆 3= {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) , ( 1 2 ) , ( 1 |
,𝑆3 )3|
,=6
( 2 3) }
𝐴 3 = {𝑒 , ( 1 2 3 ) , ( 1 3 2 ) } | 𝐴 3|=3
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 46
Example: Eand .
|𝑆4|= 24
| 𝐴 4|= 12
Theorem 6. Even Permutations Form a Group 47
𝑆 𝑛= 𝑛 !
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝑛
|𝑆3|=6| 𝐴 3|=3 |𝑆4|=|24
𝐴 4 |= 12
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Theorem 7