Instantaneous Power
• The instantaneous power delivered to any device is given by the product of the
instantaneous voltage across the device and the instantaneous current through it.
• In DC systems, the power is P = VI.
• In AC systems, the power is calculated as follows:
• 1) For resistive loads:
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Instantaneous Power
• The instantaneous power delivered to any device is given by the product of the
instantaneous voltage across the device and the instantaneous current through it.
• In AC systems, the power is calculated as follows:
• 2) For inductive loads:
• 3) For capacitive loads:
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Instantaneous Power
• The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any instant of time.
• Let the voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit shown be:
• Where Vm and Im are the amplitudes (or peak values), and θv and θi are the phase angles
of the voltage and current, respectively. The instantaneous power absorbed by the
circuit is:
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Instantaneous Power
• Using the trigonometric identity:
• The power equation in the previous slide becomes:
• The instantaneous power in the equation has a time varying part and a time invariant
part as shown in the figure.
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Average Power
• The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The
average power is more convenient to measure. In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for
measuring power, responds to average power.
• The average power, in watts, is the average of the instantaneous power over one
period.
• Where P, the average power, is also measured in watts.
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Average Power
• Integrating the instantaneous power calculated for a general element as in the previous
slide we will have:
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Average Power
• How to calculate the average power in phasor domain if and then:
• We recognize the real part of this expression as the average power P according to the
previous slide:
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Average Power
• Consider two special cases of the previous equation.
1)When θv = θi, the voltage and current are in phase. This implies a purely resistive
circuit or resistive load R, and:
2) When θv − θi = ±90°, we have a purely reactive circuit, and:
• A resistive load (R ) absorbs real power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C )
absorbs zero average real power.
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Example: Inst. and Average Power
• Given that v(t) = 120 cos(377t + 45°) V and i(t) = 10 cos(377t − 10°) A find the
instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the passive linear network
shown:
• Ans:
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Example: Average Power
• Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance Z = 30 − j70 Ω when a voltage
V = 1200° V is applied across it.
• Solution:
• The current through the impedance is
• Then the average power is :
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Example: Average Power
• For the circuit shown in the figure, find the
average power supplied by the source and the
average power absorbed by the resistor.
• Solution:
The current I is given by
The average power supplied by the voltage source is
The average power absorbed by the resistor is the
same, the average power absorbed by the capacitor
is zero.
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Example: Average Power
• Find the average power absorbed by each of the three passive elements in the figure, as
well as the average power supplied by each source.
• Solution:
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Maximum Average Power Transfer
• Previously, we solved the problem of maximizing the power delivered by a power-
supplying resistive network to a load RL. Representing the circuit by its Thevenin
equivalent, we proved that the maximum power would be delivered to the load if the load
resistance is equal to the Thevenin equivalent resistance RL = RTh. We now extend that
result to ac circuits.
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Maximum Average Power Transfer
• Consider the circuit in the figure, where an ac circuit is connected to a load ZL and is
represented by its Thevenin equivalent. The load is usually represented by an impedance,
which may model an electric motor, an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the
Thevenin impedance ZTh and the load impedance ZL are
• The circuit current is calculated as:
• The power absorbed by the load is:
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Maximum Average Power Transfer
• Our objective is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this
we set ∂P∕∂RL and ∂P∕∂XL equal to zero. From the power equation in the previous slide we
obtain:
• Setting ∂P∕∂XL to zero gives
• and setting ∂P∕∂RL to zero results in
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Maximum Average Power Transfer
• Combining the above equations leads to the conclusion that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected so that XL = −XTh and RL = RTh, i.e.,
• For maximum average power transfer, the load impedance ZL must be equal to the
complex conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.
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Example: Max. Avg. Power Transfer
• Determine the load impedance ZL that maximizes
the average power drawn from the circuit shown.
What is the maximum average power?
• Solution:
• First we obtain the Thevenin equivalent at the load
terminals. To get ZTh, consider the circuit shown
below. We find:
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Example: Max. Avg. Power Transfer
• To find VTh, consider the circuit shown. By voltage
division,
• Then, we draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit to
calculate the power supplied to the load.
• Please note that we can find the maximum power as in:
• However, it is extremely important to know that this
formula only works with peak values, NOT RMS values.
(we will learn later about these topics).
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Avg. Power for Non-periodic Signals
• A current (or voltage) function which is the sum of several sinusoids of different periods
and arbitrary amplitudes, for example:
Will produce average power to a resistor R that is equal to:
• The same approach can be used to derive a non-periodic source of voltage signals.
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Example: Avg. Power for Non-periodic Signals
1) Find the average power delivered to a 4 Ω resistor by the current ( Ans. P = 26 W)
2) Find the average power delivered to a 4 Ω resistor by the current ( Ans. P= 2 W)
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Effective or RMS Values
• The idea of effective value arises from the need to measure the effectiveness of a voltage
or current source in delivering power to a resistive load.
• When it is needed to measure how much power is delivered by a signal, the Root Mean
Square RMS or Effective value of a signal is calculated.
• The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the same average
power to a resistor as the periodic current.
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Effective or RMS Values
• Equaling the two equations, we will have:
• In a similar procedure, we can conclude that the effective value of the voltage is:
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Effective or RMS Values
• This indicates that the effective value is the (square) root of the mean (or average) of the
square of the periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is often known as the root-mean-
square value, or rms value for short; and we write
• For any periodic function x(t) in general, the rms value is given by:
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Effective or RMS Values
• For any sinusoid i(t) = Im cos ωt, the effective or rms value is:
• Similarly, for v(t) = Vm cos ωt,
• What if we changed the sinusoid frequency or phase shift?
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Effective or RMS Values
• The average power in can be written in terms of the rms values.
• Similarly, the average power absorbed by a resistor R can be written as
• When a sinusoidal voltage or current is specified, it is often in terms of its maximum (or
peak) value or its rms value, since its average value is zero. The power industries specify
phasor magnitudes in terms of their rms values rather than peak values. For instance, the
220 V available at every household is the rms value of the voltage from the power
company. It is convenient in power analysis to express voltage and current in their rms
values. Also, analog voltmeters and ammeters are designed to read directly the rms value
of voltage and current, respectively.
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Example: Effective or RMS Values
• Determine the rms value of the current waveform shown. If the current waveform is
passed through a 4-Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
• Solution:
• The period of the waveform is T = 5. Over a period,
• we can write the current waveform as
• The RMS value is,
• And the power delivered to a 2-Ω resistor is;
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Example: Effective or RMS Values
• Determine the rms value of the current waveform shown. If the current waveform is
passed through a 2-Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
• Solution:
• The period of the waveform is T = 4. Over a period,
• we can write the current waveform as
• The RMS value is,
• And the power delivered to a 2-Ω resistor is;
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Example: Effective or RMS Values
• Determine the rms value of the voltage waveform shown. If the voltage waveform is
passed through a 10-Ω resistor, find the average power absorbed by the resistor.
• Solution:
• The period of the waveform is T = 2π. Over a period,
• we can write the voltage waveform as
• The RMS value is,
• And the power delivered to a 10-Ω resistor is;
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Effective Value with Multiple-Frequency Circuits
• The effective value of a current which is composed of any number of sinusoidal currents
of different frequencies can be expressed as:
• And the same for voltage waveforms.
• Example: find the effective (RMS) value for the signal;
• a) v(t) = 6 cos 25t + 7 sin 100t
• b) i(t) = 6 cos 25t + 5 sin 30t + 4 V
• c) v(t) = 6 cos 25t + 4 sin(25t + 30◦)
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Apparent Power and Power Factor
• If our applied voltage and current responses had been dc quantities, the average power
delivered to the network would have been given simply by the product of the voltage and
the current. Applying this dc technique to the sinusoidal problem, we should obtain a
value for the absorbed power which is “apparently’’ given by the familiar product Veff Ieff.
However, this product of the effective values of the voltage and current is not the average
power; we define it as the apparent power. Dimensionally, apparent power must be
measured in the same units as real power, since cos(θv − θi) is dimensionless; but in order
to avoid confusion, the term volt-amperes, or VA, is applied to the apparent power.
• Since cos(θv − θi) cannot have a magnitude greater than unity, the magnitude of the real
power can never be greater than the magnitude of the apparent power.
• The ratio of the real or average power to the apparent power is called the power factor,
symbolized by PF. Hence,
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Apparent Power and Power Factor
• The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.
• The average power is a product of two terms. The product VrmsIrms is known as the
apparent power S. The factor cos(θv − θi) is called the power factor (pf).
• The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power should be the
voltage-current product, by analogy with dc resistive circuits. It is measured in volt-
amperes or VA to distinguish it from the average or real power, which is measured in
watts. The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the
apparent power,
• The angle (θv − θi) is called the power factor angle, because it is the angle whose cosine
is the power factor.
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Apparent Power and Power Factor
• The value of pf ranges between zero and unity.
• For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current are in phase, so that θv − θi = 0 and pf
= 1. This implies that the apparent power is equal to the average power.
• For a purely reactive load, θv − θi = ±90° and pf = 0. In this case the average power is
zero.
• In between these two extreme cases, pf is said to be leading or lagging. Leading power
factor means that current leads voltage, which implies a capacitive load. Lagging power
factor means that current lags voltage, implying an inductive load.
• Power factor affects the electric bills consumers pay the electric utility companies,
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Example: Apparent Power and Power Factor
• A series-connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100πt + 10°) A when the applied
voltage is v(t) = 120 cos(100πt − 20°) V. Find the apparent power and the power factor of
the load. Determine the element values that form the series-connected load.
• Solution:
• The apparent power and the power factor are calculated as:
• The pf is leading because the current leads the voltage. The pf may also be obtained from
the load impedance.
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Example: Apparent Power and Power Factor
• A series-connected load draws a current i(t) = 4 cos(100πt + 10°) A when the applied
voltage is v(t) = 120 cos(100πt − 20°) V. Find the apparent power and the power factor of
the load. Determine the element values that form the series-connected load.
• Solution:
• The load impedance Z can be modeled by a 25.98-Ω resistor in series with a capacitor
with
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Example: Apparent Power and Power Factor
• Determine the power factor of the entire circuit shown as seen by the source. Calculate
the average power delivered by the source.
• Solution:
• The rms value of the current is:
• So, the power factor is
• The average power supplied by the source is
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Apparent Power and Power Factor
• The angle (θv − θi) is called the power factor angle, because it is the angle whose cosine
is the power factor. The power factor angle is equal to the angle of the load impedance if
V is the voltage across the load and I is the current through it. This is evident from the
fact that:
• Alternatively, since
• The impedance is:
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Apparent Power and Inst. Power on Time Figures
• Example: From the shown figure, find the voltage frequency, PF, average power and
apparent power.
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Complex Power
• Complex power is a general term to represent the power consumed by a resistor and a
power generated/consumed by an inductor or a capacitor.
• The average power P absorbed by the two terminal network is thus
• Complex nomenclature is next introduced by making use of Euler’s formula in the same
way as we did in introducing phasors. We express P as
• It is obvious from the above equation uses the complex conjugate of the current
• Hence:
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Complex Power
• and we may now let power become complex by defining the complex power S as
• If we first inspect the polar or exponential form of the complex power,
• we see that the magnitude of S, VeffIeff, is the apparent power. The angle of S, (θv − θi), is
the PF angle (i.e., the angle by which the voltage leads the current).
• In rectangular form, we have
• where P is the average power, as before. The imaginary part of the complex power is
symbolized as Q and is termed the reactive power. The dimensions of Q are the same as
those of the real power P, the complex power S, and the apparent power |S|. In order to
avoid confusion with these other quantities, the unit of Q is defined as the volt-ampere-
reactive (abbreviated VAR).
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Reactive Power
• The physical interpretation of reactive power is the time rate of energy flow back and
forth between the source (i.e., the utility company) and the reactive components of the
load (i.e., inductances and capacitances). These components alternately charge and
discharge, which leads to current flow from and to the source, respectively.
• The reactive power Q is a measure of the energy exchange between the source and the
reactive part of the load. The unit of Q is the volt-ampere reactive (VAR) to distinguish it
from the real power, whose unit is the watt. Note that:
1. Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).
2. Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).
3. Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).
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Summary of Power Relations
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The Power Triangle
• It is a standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form
of a triangle, known as the power triangle, as shown. This is
similar to the impedance triangle showing the relationship
between Z, R, and X. The power triangle has four items—
the apparent/complex power, real power, reactive power, and
the power factor angle.
• when S lies in the first quadrant, we have an inductive load
and a lagging pf. When S lies in the fourth quadrant, the load
is capacitive and the pf is leading.
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Example: Complex Power
• The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(ωt − 10°) V and the current through the element is
i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt + 50°) A. Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and
reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
• Solution:
• (a) For the rms values of the voltage and current, we write
• The complex power is
• The apparent power is
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Example: Complex Power
• The voltage across a load is v(t) = 60 cos(ωt − 10°) V and the current through the element is
i(t) = 1.5 cos(ωt + 50°) A. Find: (a) the complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and
reactive powers, and (c) the power factor and the load impedance.
• Solution:
(b) We can express the complex power in rectangular form as
So the real and the reactive powers are:
(c) The power factor is
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Example: Complex Power
• For the circuit shown, find the complex power absorbed by the (a) 1 Ω resistor; (b) −j10 Ω
capacitor; (c) 5 + j10 Ω impedance; (d) source.
• Ans: 26.6 + j0 VA; 0 − j1331VA; 532 + j1065 VA;
• 559 - j266 VA.
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Example: Complex Power
• A load Z draws 12 kVA at a power factor of 0.856 lagging from a 120-V rms sinusoidal
source. Calculate: (a) the average and reactive powers delivered to the load, (b) the peak
current, and (c) the load impedance.
• Solution:
• (a) Given that pf = cos θ = 0.856, we obtain the power angle as θ = cos−1 0.856 = 31.13°. If
the apparent power is S = 12,000 VA, then the average or real and reactive power are:
• (b)
• (c)
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Conservation of AC Power
• The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources equal the respective sums of the
complex, real, and reactive powers of the individual loads.
• For a source that is connected to N loads:
• Example: For the circuit shown, find Vo and the input power factor.
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Conservation of AC Power
• Example: For the circuit shown, find Io.
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Conservation of AC Power
• Example: The figure shows a load
being fed by a voltage source
through a transmission line. The
impedance of the line is represented
by the (4 + j2) Ω impedance and a
return path. Find the real power and
reactive power absorbed by: (a) the
source, (b) the line, and (c) the load.
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Conservation of AC Power
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Conservation of AC Power
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Power Factor Correction
• The process of increasing the power factor without altering the voltage or current to the
original load is known as power factor correction.
• Since most loads are inductive, a load’s power factor is improved or corrected by
deliberately installing a capacitor in parallel with the load.
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Power Factor Correction
• We can look at the power factor correction from another
perspective. Consider the power triangle shown. If the
original inductive load has apparent power S1, then
• If we desire to increase the power factor from cosθ1 to
cosθ2 without altering the real power (i.e., P = S2 cosθ2),
then the new reactive power is
• The reduction in the reactive power is caused by the
shunt capacitor; that is,
• The value of the shunt capacitor to provide this power:
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Example, Power Factor Correction
• When connected to a 120-V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load absorbs 4 kW at a lagging
power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance necessary to raise the pf to 0.95 lagging.
• Solution:
• If the pf = 0.8, then
• where θ1 is the phase difference between voltage and current. We obtain the apparent
power from the real power and the pf as:
• The reactive power is:
• When the pf is raised to 0.95,
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Example, Power Factor Correction
• The real power P has not changed. But the apparent power has changed; its new value is
• The new reactive power is
• The difference between the new and old reactive powers is due to the parallel addition of
the capacitor to the load. The reactive power due to the capacitor is
• And
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Example, Power Factor Correction
• Study the circuit shown, then find the value of the capacitor that is needed to correct the
power factor to 0.95 lagging. Find the source current before and after adding the capacitor.
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Suggested Problems
• Instantaneous and average power: 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.5.
• Maximum power transfer: 11.12, 11.13, 11.18, 11.21
• RMS values: 11.22, 11.24 – 11.35.
• Apparent power and power factor: 11.38, 11.39
• Complex power: 11.42, 11.45-11.50
• Conservation of power: 11.60-11.63
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