Chapter 14 Biology IGCSE Notes

Coordination And Response

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Describe the role of the nervous system.
-​ coordination and regulation of body functions.
-​ It detects a change in the environment and responds to them accordingly to
maintain homeostasis.

What is the human nervous system composed of?

-​ Central Nervous System (CNS)
-​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System:

-​ Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System:

-​ All the nerves in the body (besides the
spinal cord and the brain)

NEURONS
Neurons carry electrical impulses, a bundle of
neurons is called a nerve.

What are the 3 types of neurons?

-​ Sensory neuron
-​ Relay neurons
-​ Motor neurons
Sensory neurons: Pass electrical impulses from the sense organs→ CNS

Relay neurons: Connect the sensory neurons with the motor neurons.

Motor neurons: Pass electrical impulses from the CNS→ effectors.

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+Axon:
Long fibre. less time needed to transfer the electrical impulse. Send the impulse.

Myelin sheath:
Acts as an insulation layer.

Nodes:
uninsulated layer. No myelin. electrical impulses jump from one node to the next.

Dendrites:
Branches which connect the nerve cells together to receive the information.

Cell body:
Metabolic reactions occur here.

REFLEX ARC
What are involuntary actions?
-​ Actions which you are performing without the command of the brain. (reflex actions)
-​ Brain is not needed for this response. (quick response)
-​ Example: You touch something hot and before you know it, you pull your hand away.

What are voluntary actions?

-​ Actions which require the command of the brain first. Performed consciously.
-​ It requires the brain so it takes longer. (slower response)

What is a stimulus?
-​ A Change in the environment

What is a receptor?
-​ A structure that detects a stimulus and sends electrical impulses to the CNS.

What is an effector?
-​ A structure that responds to the stimuli or the signal coming from the nervous
system, this allows you to perform a specific action to react to the stimuli

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*What is a reflex action?
-​ Rapid actions done without the command of the brain to protect your body and to
respond to stimuli.
-​ *A reflex action is a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating
stimuli with the responses of effectors (muscles and glands)
-​ A reflex action is an automatic and rapid response dealing with the stimuli using
the response coming from the effectors.

What is a reflex arc?

-​ The pathway the nerve impulses follow in order to perform the involuntary or reflex
actions.

*Explain the reflex arc.

1.​ Stimulus is the pin
2.​ Receptors detect the stimuli and sends the impulse to the sensory neuron
3.​ Sensory neurons pass the impulse to the spinal cord and the relay neuron.
4.​ Relay passes the impulse to the motor neuron
5.​ Motor neuron passes it over to the effectors (muscles or glands)

*Memorise the reflex pathway.

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 SYNAPSE
What is a synapse?
-​ A junction between 2 neurons.
-​ Synapse also makes sure that the electrical impulses travel in 1 direction.

Describe the structure of the synapse.

-​ Vesicles which contain chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.
-​ Synaptic gap
-​ Receptor protein

Explain what happens in the synapse.

1.​ Electrical impulse passes through the 1st neuron
2.​ Excites the vesicles causing them to release neurotransmitters
3.​ Neurotransmitters diffuse through the presynaptic membrane onto the postsynaptic
membrane
4.​ Neurotransmitters attach to the receptors
5.​ An impulse is produced and sent to the
rest of the body.

SENSE ORGANS
What are sense organs?
-​ A bundle of receptor cells which
respond to stimuli like:
Temperature, chemicals, touch, sound
and light.

What are receptors?

-​ Structures which receive stimuli.

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 THE EYE
CORNEA:
Refracts light.

IRIS:
Controls how much light enters the pupil.

LENS:
Focus the light onto the retina.

CILIARY MUSCLES:
Control the shape of the pupil.

SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS:
Attach ciliary muscles to the lens

SCLERA:
White coating that provides the eyes with protection.

RETINA:
Contain receptor cells which are sensitive to light of some colours. (more rods here)

OPTIC NERVE:
Sends the electrical impulses to the brain

FOVEA:
Contains highest concentration of cone cells. allows the image being viewed to be
high quality/clear.

BLIND SPOT:
Contain no receptic cells. (NO rods or cones)

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RODS:
Detect the light intensity.

CONES:
Detect the different colours.

PUPIL REFLEX
What is pupil reflex?
-​ An automatic reflex action performed by the eye to respond to different light
intensities.
-​ It is an antagonistic action performed by the circular and radial muscles.

BRIGHT LIGHT
-​ Circular muscles contract
-​ Radial muscles relax
-​ Pupil diameter constricts

DIM LIGHT
-​ Circular muscles relax
-​ Radial muscles contract
-​ Pupil diameter dilates

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 ACCOMODATION
What is accommodation?
-​ It is the function of the eye which helps to change the focus in near or distant
objects.

NEAR OBJECT
-​ ciliary muscles contract
-​ suspensory ligaments relax
-​ lens become thicker
-​ more refraction

DISTANT OBJECT
-​ Ciliary muscles relax
-​ Suspensory ligaments contract
-​ Lens become thinner
-​ Less rarefaction is needed.

RODS CONES
-​ Used in night vision or dim light. -​ Used in bright light
-​ 3 types of cones for RGB light.

-​ Found everywhere except blind spot -​ highest concentration of cones in

and fovea the fovea.

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 HORMONES
What are hormones?
-​ Chemical substances that are produced in the glands and are secreted into the blood
and alter the activity of a targeted organ.

What are endocrine glands?

-​ The glands that produce hormones in animals. This forms the endocrine system.

What do hormones affect and why?

-​ Hormones can only affect the target receptor cells.
-​ Receptor cells have to be complementary to the hormone.

GLAND HORMONE

Pancreas Insulin and glucagon

Testes testosterone

Ovaries Oestrogen

Adrenal glands Adrenaline

INSULIN:
Hormone that decreases the glucose concentration when levels are high.

GLUCAGON:
Hormone that increases the glucose concentration when levels are too low.

TESTOSTERONE:
Main male sex hormone, giving male characteristics.

OESTROGEN:
Main female sex hormone, giving the female characteristics.

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ADRENALINE:Hormone that is released when a response is needed in a fight or
flight situation. stress/danger.

ADRENALINE

When is adrenaline secreted?

-​ in fight or flight situations.

What are the effects of adrenaline?

-​ Increase in heart rate
-​ Increase in breathing rate
-​ Increase in pupil diameter

INCREASE IN HEART RATE:

This ensures that the blood is pumped faster and more oxygen and glucose is
delivered to the vital organs.

INCREASE IN BREATHING RATE:

This ensures that oxygen and glucose is delivered faster to the vital organs, and
metabolic wastes like carbon dioxide is removed.

INCREASE IN PUPIL SIZE

This ensures that the brain gets more information as the retina takes in more light.

What is the role of adrenaline in the control of metabolic activity?

-​ Increase in heart rate
-​ Increase in breathing rate.

Nervous control Hormonal control

Made up of Brain, spinal cord Glands

Type of messages Nerve impulses Hormones

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Speed of action Rapid/fast Slow

Duration of effect Short term Long term

HOMEOSTASIS
What is homeostasis?
-​ The process of maintaining a constant internal environment.

Explain negative feedback.

-​ Negative feedback takes place to maintain homeostasis. This mechanism makes sure
that conditions from the set point aren't changed.

What is the set point?

-​ The desired/ideal value for a particular factor.

*If a factor deviates from the set point the negative feedback
mechanism is turned on to return the conditions back to the
set point.

Give an example of negative feedback.

-​ The control of glucose levels.

→ Glucose level decrease

→ Pancreas secretes glucagon hormone to increase the level
→ Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose
→ Conditions are returned to the set point.

→ Glucose level increases

→ Pancreas secretes insulin to decrease the concentration.
→ Excess glucose is converted into glycogen.
→ Conditions are returned to the set point.

TYPE- 1 DIABETES

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What is type-1 diabetes?
-​ When your pancreas secretes insufficient amounts of insulin causing an increase in
glucose levels.

What is the treatment for type-1 diabetes?

-​ Monitor their glucose blood level
-​ Exercise regularly
-​ Eat healthy. Pay extra attention to your diet.

SKIN
*Memorise the skin structure.
Explain maintenance of constant
temperature:
→ Temperature increases
→ Thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus
in the brain detect this.
→ Nerve impulse passes through the
sensory neuron
→ Brain sends electrical impulses to the
effectors as a response.
→ Response is carried out.
→ Sweating, vasodilation, hair lie flat
→ Decrease in temperature.
(Vice versa)

Maintenance of constant internal environment:

SWEATING
→ Sweat glands secrete sweat.
→ Sweat evaporates
→ Heat is passed on to the
surroundings
→ Cooling effect.

SHIVERING
→ Body shivers

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→ Muscles contract causing heat to be produced
→ Heating effect

SKIN HAIR LIE FLAT

→ Air circulation
→ Increases heat loss.

SKIN HAIRS ERECT

→ Air is trapped
→ Air is an insulator so it traps heat.
→ Decreases heat loss

VASODILATION VASOCONSTRICTION

-​ Blood vessels widen -​ Blood vessels narrow

-​ Blood flow increases -​ Blood flow slows down

-​ More heat loss -​ Less heat loss

TROPIC RESPONSES

Growing towards stimulus= positive response

Growing away from stimulus= negative response

What is gravitropism?
-​ A response in which the plant grows away or towards gravity..l

What is phototropism?
-​ A response in which the plant grows away or towards the sunlight.

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 SHOOT ROOTS

-​ Positive phototropism -​ Negative phototropism

-​ Negative gravitropism -​ Positive gravitropism

AUXIN IN SHOOT
Auxin is a growth hormone in plants.
→ Auxin is produced in the shoot tip
→ Auxin spreads out and diffuses
→ Auxin moves to the region which
has no light.
→ Elongate on the side with no light.

AUXIN IN ROOT
When roots grow towards gravity it
is known as positive geotropism
●​ In roots, higher concentrations of auxin results in a lower rate of cell
elongation
●​ The auxin that accumulates at the lower side of the root inhibits cell
elongation
●​ As a result, the lower side grows at a slower rate than the upper side of the
root

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 Plant A:
-​ Plant grows towards the
light.

Plant B:
-​ Plant will receive equal
amounts of sunlight because of
the continuous rotation.

Plant C:
-​ Will grow straight
upwards, searching for light.

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 Result:

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