Canadian Eskimo Carving in Historical Perspective Author(s): Charles A. Martijn Reviewed work(s): Source: Anthropos, Bd. 59, H. 3./4.

(1964), pp. 546-596 Published by: Anthropos Institute Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40456426 . Accessed: 04/06/2012 16:30
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in Canadian Eskimo Perspective Carving Historical

By Charles A. Martijn

I Eskimoart, extending back over thousands years,has neverbeen a of It can and mustbe dividedintodistinctive homogeneous stylistically entity. phases and periods(Collins 1961:1). Only by placingthesein theirproper of of at context timeand spacemaywehopeto arrive a fuller appreciation them. whichgovern theirstructure Societiesdo not remain static.The factors the which affect are variedin natureand susceptible a multitude stresses of to ofthewhole.Whether subtleand slowor suddenand drastic, interrelationship shifts equilibrium constantly in withthis,Art are taking place. In accordance of transformation. itself, beinga manifestation culture, undergoes continually Henceforms designs and in and mustbe studied order determine their to origin their and ifpossible, basicreasons causesfor these the or time, changes through (D.Taylor 1957:478). Morethana decade ago, whenCanadianEskimocarvings first beganto receivewidespread no as a attention, recognized authority yethad published and up-to-date and of Eskimo art in all its temporal comprehensive study Existent reference bookswerelimited bothin historical spatialmanifestations. and geographical 1. Apartfrom the inaccessible, scope range beingrelatively in that by Holtved (1947),was written onlypreliminary surveyattempted, Danish2. Regrettably thislack of scholarly the evaluationhas permitted so, and unchallenged appearancein printof diverseformulations speculations about arcticart by personswho,thoughwell-intentioned, not possessa did
to for and Acknowledgements. I am indebted the following persons reading on of drafts thispaper: Professors Robert Dailey, commenting variouspreliminary of JamesVanstone, and Fred Voget, Dept. of Anthropology, ; University Toronto Dr. William Taylor, National Museum Canada ; and Dr. Edward S. Rogers, Royal of Ontario Toronto. Their viewsdo notnecessarily coincide withmine, I wish and Museum, to stress thattheopinions are so expressed strictly own.The information generously my and and of provided manycorrespondents, thesuggestions encouragement Ron and by Joan Vastokas and Sue O'Hara are also gratefully acknowledged. 1 Therearesomethirty fall which in thiscategory. monographs 2 Witha three page Englishsummary appended.

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detailed knowledge of Eskimo history, culture, and character3. Qualified anthropologistsand art historians have begun only recently to correct this situation4. on Canadian Eskimo carving Among the numerouswriters contemporary there stands, at one extreme,a factionsteadfastlydevoted to the theorythat we are dealing here with somethingauthenticallyaboriginal in every respect. Thus Saarinen (1954:64) sees it as "perhaps the last unspoiled, indigenous and spontaneous art". This findsan echo in Schaefer-Simmern (1958:1) who knstlerischeProfreisprieende speaks of "noch einmal eine unverflschte, duktion, die unlsbar mit dem Gesamtleben ihrer Erzeuger verbunden ist". Views substantiallysimilar to the above have been advanced by others5. Certain adherentsof this school, however,have expressed contradictory opinions this whole issue. on what would seem to be quite basic propositionsunderlying ratherthan divergencewith the past, thereby a) A fewstressconformity its the notionthat throughout historyEskimo carvinghas constituted fostering less uniform a more or sculpturesare presentedas phenomenon.Contemporary of an ancient tradition,freefromany merelythe most recentexemplifications Westerninfluence.Thus forexample, the National Gallery of Canada (1951:1) contends most naively that "as in all genuinely primitiveart, there is little evolutionin styleto be observed. Some of the artifactsdiscoveredin old Eskimo frompresent-daycarvingsonly in being slightlysmaller". sites differ part ofthe above statementclashes withan expositionoffered 6) The first he asserts that by Houston (1954e:7). Injecting a distinctlyevolutionarynote, existence in a harsh "the Eskimo people of Canada, cheerfully living a difficult over the centuriesa unique art form...". climate, have developed amiss c) Despite this assurance there are occasional hints of something 6 to a 'revival' or 'renaissance' of ancient arts in the past. Referencesby others and latent talents carry the implicationthat Canadian Eskimos, aftera timewithout lapse of unspecifiedlength,have again taken up carving,presumably of expression. alteringtheir traditionalways shared by Copland (1954:67) d) Somewhatless orthodoxis the view-point and Falck (1955:305) who credit outsiderswith encouragingthe development of modern Canadian Eskimo carving. They feel, however,in the words of the est last-named author that "ici en effet, en train de natre un art de sculpture comme l'une des formes l'on s'accorde reconnatre absolumentoriginal,et que au Canada". les plus pures de la cration artistique indigne and s Swinton (1958:41)statesbluntly:"Therehas been published, reprinted, has and was which entirely misleading which established deal ofmaterial, a great quoted, aboutvarious aspectsof Eskimo of in theminds eventhenot-so-gullible publica myth to no resemblance thefacts." thatbears carving 4 Anonymous (1963); Carpenter (1959); Christensen (1955); Collins (1961); Tenness(1964); Meldgaard (1960b); Rainey (1959); Ray (1961); andSwinton(1958). no. 6 Anonymous Guild (pamphlet a) ; Elliott (1962); Canadian Handicrafts Hume (1963); Leechman (1955); Martin (1962); E. Turner (1963); Winter (1962); (1958): Woodcock (I960) ; and Wyatt (1958). 8 CanadianHandicrafts ; no. Guild (pamphlet a) ; Gilhooly (1962:214) Iglauer and Phillips (1962:8). ; (1964:19)

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it e) Lastly,Strub (1954:32)perceives as a "... stylewhichis not selffurther butis in a living tradition". alongthis Expanding consciously primitive it Phillips (1961:43) has argued "... what nonsense is to talk,as some line, mandeveloping CanadianEskimoart.An art,to be authenhave,ofthewhite Eskimoart and of tic,mustbe an expression lifeand living, to say thatmodern has beenaffected thecontact Eskimos manis tosayno more with white the of by thanthattheEskimois alive,receptive sensitive as he alwayshas been". and tend guarded. Disquisitions a secondbodyofcoriimentators to be more by in influence thestyleofthe Somepointout unmistakable evidence Western of the without presentday carvings, necessarily denying lattera true Eskimo 8. character Others 7. havejudgedit to be an artofacculturation After reflecting Meldgaard at somelength thequestion whenartceasesto be traditional, of on of be (1960b:38)reasonsthat "thelineshouldprobably drawnwhenworks art whenthey no longer a traditional in Eskimoculture in other words, ; part play are producedfor tradingpurposes,and to meet a demandfromoutside". that "... Eskimoart,or rather Swinton (1958:41)has cometo theconclusion in stone, we knowit todayis a newart,or at least a newphaseofan as carving from in differs almosteveryrespect Yet, it so markedly prevage-oldactivity. iousdevelopments we are quitesafein callingit a newart". that standsa third end groupwhose Finally,at theopposite ofthescale there of members disclaimtheright contemporary CanadianEskimocarving firmly is to to be called'primitive* Sucha position attributed Peter Murdochby art. that "... socalled Scherman(1956:295) whoquoteshimas stating categorically art was invented the Whiteman". This pointof Eskimo by (contemporary) that "these view findssupportfromCarpenter (1960a:346) who maintains newcarvings, sharelittlewithEskimoart,or evenwithAlaskanor however, Greenlandic ... souvenirs Can theword'Eskimo* be legitimately appliedto this art ? I think not.Its rootsare Western so is its audience... a new,delightful, ; art"9. Perhapsthe severest non-Eskimo of commentary all has been thatex"une rcente pressedby Malaurie (1958a:549).In his estimation, exposition d'art esquimau canadien contemporain rappel que l'art des civilisations a est mourantes nonseulement mais selonle motd'AndrMalraux, 'rabcheur', a aussi perdusa valeurcratrice, sa Tout ce qui n'est c'est--dire porte. qu'il de pas 'utilitaire' rvlecommemoinssignificatif, stylemoinscaractris, s'y ... civilisationnelle. constitue Elle en ; plus gratuit Strilit spirituellestrilit effet manifestation la d'unedmission devantle prsent l'avenirdansle vain et et le espoirde prserver de promouvoir pass". In order properly to evaluateall thesediverse often and views conflicting whichhave been quoted above, it will be necessary delve briefly to into the of The latter, thispurpose, beendivfor has history CanadianEskimocarving.
7 Anonymous (1961:1) ; Christensen (1955:84) ; Collins (1961:27) ; Driver (1961:594) ; Gnther (1957:151) ; Jenness (1964:113) ; and Weyer (1960:34). 8 Altman (1960:356) ; Anonymous (1963) ; Dale (1958:35) ; Mary-Rousselire (1960b:14) ; Ray (1961:135) ; and Reichardt (1962:22). 9 He subsequentlytemperedthis view (Carpenter 1962:12).

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traditional or priorto European idedintothree namely, segments, arbitrary until1949; and contemporary orfrom contact historical orpost-contact ; thatdate till the present. II with some Houston (1954c: couldstillwrite As late as theMid-Fifties, 11) ... in discovered theEasternArctic arecenturies that old, justification "carvings the but to date themwouldbe difficult". Today,however, arcticarchaeologist from B. Tylor, sucha "dispiriting E. a is nolonger boundby,to borrow phrase have advancesin datingtechniques Scientific of doctrine necessary ignorance". for of intheestablishment an absolute beeninstrumental chronology prehistoric the withsomeconfidence time It cultures. is nowpossibleto determine Arctic excavatedsite,willfall. at unearthed a properly a which carving, rangewithin art Eskimoand Paleolithic are the questionofwhether Parenthetically, raised by time to time,being first from underdiscussion relatedhas come of Dawkins (1874:354 10. Afteran intensiveinvestigation the problem, ff.) differences weretoo manystylistic thatthere concluded de Laguna (1932-33) but connection, did not rule out comabsoluteproofof historical to permit like link.Laterinquirers Rudenko (1947:163) ofa remote the pletely possibility and spatial gaps wereso greatas to preclude any feltthat the chronological Eskimoart was concerned. morerecent as connection, certainly faras genetic the between Magdalenian the relationship Bandi (1950)rejects idea ofa direct the from Epithatthelatterdeveloped and Eskimocultures, beingconvinced the debate on the Collins (1959) subsequently reopened of Gravettian Asia. and Aleutiancultures. the from olderDorset,Okvik, ofnewevidence strength of less conventionalized designs theseearlier geometric Certain linear, simpler, thanto any forms and to closer UpperPaleolithic Mesolithic stagescorrespond later Eskimostyleswhichsucceededthemboth in Americaand Eurasia. At bearinga decin TrailCreek Alaska,Larsen (1951:74)founda bone artifact of In theopinion Collins (1963:17), orationtypicalof the Magiemose period. between of the this "tendsgreatlyto strengthen probability a relationship art Eskimoand Mesolithic ...". North of to the in framework which fit prehistory Northern A speculative has in up CanadianArctic particular, beendrawn and the as America a whole, of "in theseregions terms theconcept thatfor byMacNeish (1959).He believes intosomesort can sitesand industries be fitted mostoftheknown oftradition is way of life scheme"(1959:20).By 'tradition' meanta distinct of coherent to timeand space,and is recognizable thearchaeologist which through persists Suchtraditions be broken trait or may artifact complexes. becauseofdiagnostic of reflect which processes of intoa series basicallyrelatedphasesor periods up withnewcultures to to in and/or contact adjustment response newsituations (MacNeish 1962a:26). can traditions be archaeologically distinct to According MacNeish three
10For a recent of treatment thissubjectsee Greenman(1963),

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in Thesethree theprecursors present are of recognized Canada'sFar North. day Eskimoculture thatarea, and whatever in rootsmodern carving mayhave in should mustbe tracedback to them. therefore comparisons prehistory Stylistic an CanadianEskimo for howclosely provide opportunity judging contemporary art those'primitive1 phasesofthepast. carving approximates knownas the Tradition 1 - (c. 2500B. C. - 800 B. C.) - otherwise no. Arctic SmallTool tradition. is themostancient reported It one from Canadthe ian High Arctic, in Alaska or East Siberiaabout havingoriginally developed 4000B. C. (MacNeish 1963:104).The Bering to Straitarea deserves be called the crucible Eskimoculture(Collins 1960:131).Overlong periods time of of material intellectual and from and cross-currents theSiberian Alaskanlittorals with nurtured number traditions a of there- occasionally contemporaneous was thestarting which variousmigrant each other. Here too groups pointfrom eras. eastern arctic zonesduring spreadoutintothemore prehistoric Aboveall, it was theregion its levelsof where Eskimocarving reached mostsophisticated and imagination. SmallTool stoneimplements theArctic of artistry Specialized tradition denotean affinity withthe older Cape DenbighFlint Complexof in turnappearsto stemfrom EurasianMesolithic the Alaska,which (Collins: 1957). Small Tool cultures suchas Cave II at TrailCreek(Larsen Early Arctic and Battle Rock and Choris(c. 1500- 500 B. C.) have producedthe 1951:74), oldestknown Alaskanart (MacNeish 1963:103 Giddings 1961: fig. & 12). 9 ; thesealready Whether to remains pertain a trueEskimopopulation conjectural, and mention them madehereonlyin passing.Certain of is laterartforms from Norton(c. 500 B. C. - 400 A. D.), Ipiutak (c. 100 - 500 A. D.), and Nukleet us (before1200A. D.) concern only indirectly (Larsen and Rainey : 1948; Giddings 1950:2& 8). Ancient Aleutiancarvings, whichrelateto a different fall tradition, outsidethescope ofthispapern. Until now nothing has been publishedyet on Canadian ArcticSmall Tool art.This makesit difficult detailwhataesthetic to if elements, any,were to succeeding traditions A fewcarvings 12. from period, this bequeathed reprehumanfaces,have been foundat Igloolik sentinganimals and naturalistic Peninsula,Canada). (Melville In Greenland, art objectsofArctic two Small Tool origin weredugup at Itivneraand Godthbsfj orden (Barfod et al. 1962:85). They date back to circa900 B. C. (Meldgaard : communication 1961).One is a tinybonespatula on which facehas beenengraved. seconditemis a pieceofbonedecorated a The witha skeletondesign.The circumpolar distribution this particular of trait reflects ancientEurasian origin an As (Gessain 1959:237). we shall see below, its occurrence bothArctic in Small Tool and Dorsetartestablishes another yet linkbetween thesetwo cultures.
11 de Laguna (1934) ; Clark (1964) ; Heizer (1952) ; Hrdlicka soN (1925) ; Laughlin (1962) ; and Quimby (1945). (1944) ; Jochel-

12Influences from connections Indiantraditions thesouthstillremain and with to to be unravelled (Harp : 1961- MacNeish 1962:142).

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Tradition 2 - (c. 800 B. C. - 1350A. D.) - otherwise no. knownas the DorsetTradition. that Thereare indications it developed situas an off-shoot in from Arctic Small Tool and need not be attributed a new migratory to wave invadingCanada's northland(W. Taylor 1959:18). Recent archaeological of evidence does indeedbear out thistheory a gradualtransformation (Maxa of from early the well 1962:40).In addition Dorsetborrowed number traits traditions Micro-blade Inuk and Northwest (MacNeish 1959:12). a Collins (1961:25)lookson Dorsetartas essentially localized Although will reveal research to is it not unreasonable expectthatfuture development, SmallTool art. Dorsetand Arctic between continuation lines further ofstylistic to is nowhelping extend ofarchaeological The increasing investigation tempo westward Taylor and farther farther the known (W. rangeof Dorsetculture of to This maylead ultimately a clarification art styleconnections 1964:128). on witholderAlaskanarea cultures alreadyremarked by Collins (1959).The thisera still awaits contactsand diffusion of Indian-Eskimo during question Harp 1961:69),but Collins (1962:129) intensive ; scrutiny (Byers 1962:153 of the evenconsider possibility a relationship out has pointed that"we might occur lineswhichoccasionally of the between simpledecoration short straight similardesignsof Dorset art"13. and the somewhat Old Copperartifacts on of intoa number perhave dividedthe DorsetTradition Archaeologists did it oneofthese, apparently in art iods.Although makesan appearance every - circa800 - 1200A. D. The farflung untilthelaterstages notbeginto flourish of variaregional distribution Dorsetculture mayhave promoted geographical but as yetno studyofthishas beenattempted. tionsin artstyles, wooden of The onlylargeexamples Dorsetartseemto have beenlife-size on an averageone are red.MostDorsetcarvings delicateobjects, maskspainted from bone,wood,and antler.They incheslong,and fashioned ivory, to three such as animalheads ; parts of an animallike hoof, fall into classifications ; individual'mask' countenances multiplehuman faces or mandible, beak ; models and bothnaturalistic stylistic ; on arranged piecesofwoodorantler and last-namedcategoryis The and figurines. of anthropomorphic zoomorphic of incisedwitha 'skeletal'designconsisting an X acrossthe head, commonly lines and chevron, cross-hatch on theremainder vertical, andvarious horizontal, u. theinterior arrangement Carvosteological of thebody,as ifto accentuate in incision the immediate region displaya single ingsof thisgenresometimes relatedto magicalrituals (Campbell 1963: of the heart,a practice probably joint marksprovides 579) 15.An emphasisin early Dorset art on depicting with anatomical detail (Laughlin for a preoccupation additionalevidence 1962:117).
betweena late to 13Greenman (1963:86)draws attention close resemblances pendant.See also Howley (1915) and Speck Dorsetand a BeothukIndian decorated (1940). . . in but 14Thistrait absent modern CanadianEskimocarving stillpersists tnat in is Ammassalik oftheEast Greenland (Meldgaard : 1960b- Thalbitzer : 1914). an Meldgaard (1960b:plate 10b) illustrates ivory polar Dearwitna cavitym lid. a blood,andclosedwith sliding which ochre with filled represents itsthroat, probably

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faciallinesto represent had Likenesses humans of occasionally transverse in caricature while wereat timesportrayed grotesque form, tattooing. People some animals presentthe appearanceof an open framework, havingtheir side from to sideat different insides hollowed by meansofslotscutthrough out and doubthave holesforsuspension purposes angles16.Manyofthecarvings These are cut,notdrilled, perforations, lesslyservedas amuletsor ornaments. of becausethepeoplewhomadethemwereignorant thebow-drill. the Towardthe end of its long life-span DorsetTradition began to be an extraneous thirdtradition(Inuk), a late phase of which supplantedby (Thule) expandedinto the Canadian Arcticfroma coastal home territory In theseThule AlaskaYukonborder. mostdistricts locatednear the present In the Dorset inhabitants17. certainisolated invaderscompletely displaced of modified Thuleinfluence, have areasvestiges Dorsetculture, may heavily by of tribeon as has been suggested the Sadlermiut untilrecent times, persisted Island (de Laguna : 1947).Alongtheeast coastofHudsonBay Southampton and on theBelcherIslands someadmixture appearsto have takenplace. This built riseto what Quimby(1940:165)has namedthe Manitunik culture, gave 18. Thule foundation on a Dorset-influenced have on Dorset art ? Collins What impact did these developments to that it "... completely disappeared, be succeeded (1961:1)is ofthe opinion art the simpleand stereotyped of the Thule culture".Indeed,considering by thatDorsetartcouldhavesurvived it thecircumstances,seemshighly unlikely traits but in thearctic. Individual hereand there perhaps, not intactanywhere The Sadlermiut birdfigurines excavated distinctive the complete, ivory style. Dorsetinfluany recognizable by W. Taylor (1960) do not appearto exhibit in ence(communication : 1961).Conversely, thecase oftwoManitunik carvings, realism Dorsetinspiration attributes their to without enumQuimby (1940:162) This line of reasoning been weakened other has diagnostic signs. erating any thatrealism present authentic is in Thuleart by Holtved's (1947)declaration as well. Meldgaard (1960b:39)claimed,as late as 1954,to have detecteda in Dorsetheritage certaincontemporary made at Igloolik. lingering carvings The objectsin questionbear a certain of resemblance theproducts modern to HudsonBay 'art centres' their creator had neverset eyeson although Igloolik this thatthe'newstyle1 today of anyofthelatter.Meldgaard regards as proof is actuallya universal acrossthearctic, one withunmistakable Eskimoroots. one he whether theseparticular couldalso Going stepfurther, wonders carvings be traditional somedegree, to sinceit is possible thatdriblets bloodfrom old of Dorset artistscourse through the veins of modernCanadian Eskimos. His ruminations opento debate.The resemblances are sharedbylatter-day Igloolik and HudsonBay sculptures features a common of appearto be remnant style whichevolvedduring 19th the in response souvenir to trade demands century
16For discussions Dorsetartsee themasterly on treatise Collins (1961); also by Harp (1964); Meldgaard (1960b); and Taylor (1962a). 17The complexities Dorset-Thule of relations have beensummarized Taylor by (1963:462). 18Taylor (1963:462) it Dorsetfoundation. regards as a Thule-influenced,

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an Thereis, in addition, ambiguous soundto Meldgaard's remarks byWhites. aboutbloodand artistic Artistic talentmaybe genetically inherited, heritage. but not an artistic style.It goes without sayingthat the lattercan only be and handeddownculturally, sucha linkbetween IgloolikEskicontemporary be to mosand theDorsetTradition might a difficult thing establish. of the A startling claimhas beenmadeby Phillips (1962:9)for existence from the Dorset betweenthe worksunearthed an "... extraordinary affinity that culture thousand a yearsago and thepiecesbeingcreatedtoday ... proof of whatis beingseen todayis the directoff-spring a cultureflourishing long Canada was born".As will becomeeven moreapparentlater on, this before fact and aestheticreality. at is contention completely odds with historical art Tradition in Canada appearsto have died out altogether, Dorset leaving on styleswhichreplacedit 19. scarcelyany imprint the Thule and historical no. Tradition 3 - (Thule phase : c. 1000 - 1600 A. D.) - otherwise of It as known the InukTradition. consists a seriesofrelatedphases,thepento concern us. Thoughnot always ofwhich Thule- is ofprimary ultimate on bothsides of the Bering so, developed simultaneously the Inuk Tradition Small Tool offas it Strait.MacNeish (1959:11)regards tentatively an Arctic and trait becametransformed which borrowing radaptathrough partly spring and partlythrough tion of North PacificTraditionelements, independent Seaof the It Bering invention. encompasses culture phasesequence Okvik-Old - 1600A.D.), spanninga time (c. 500 Birnirk-Punuk-Thule-Inugsuk B.C. of record sucan of overtwo thousandyearsand providing unbroken period in cessivetransformations Eskimo art styles(Collins 1960:135; Ackerman 1962:27&34). The originof Canadian Thule culturehas been discussedin detail by an that thisphase developedfrom eastward W. Taylor (1963). He suggests cultureinto the WesternArcticshoreregionbetween of extension Birnirk Bands ofThule Eskimosbeganto leave this ofWales and Parry. Capes Prince eastwardinto the and carriedthe Inuk tradition regionaround 1000A. D. and Labrador. In the Greenland as and eventually far as Canadian Arctic, Dorsetpopulation the the from Tunitlegends, indigenous as glimpsed process, or annihilated absorbed, exceptfor was encountered almostentirely which they of radicalacculturation. a fewinstances as now Mostarctic prehistorians agreethat,culturally wellas physically, of descendants theThulepeople, CanadianEskimosareall direct contemporary 20. localities On the in intermixture certain someDorsetgenetic withpossibly the by field-work, theorypropounded basis of more recentarchaeological Eskimosis for of an inlandorigin CanadianCentral Birket-Smith (1959:196) 21. of no longer acceptedby a newgeneration arcticanthropologists
19 For an interesting piece of evidencein supportof thistheorysee Rowley (1950). 20 Chown and Lewis (1959:17) state : "... theremay well be in tne presentSKimo population a Dorset residuumwhich is geneticallyrecognizable". ; 21 Harp (1961:70) ; Meldgaard (1960a:29) ; Taylor (lyt^D ; iyb3:<*;>bj vANbiujNn, de Laguna (1946:106) ; Mathiassen (1962). See also Boas (1885:98) ; Collins (1961:24) ; (1930:606).
59. Anthropos 1904 ;Mi

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that InukTradition oftheBering art Strait region, preceding oftheThule has beendiscussed Rudenko : 1947(Uwelen-Okvik)Rainey : 1941 ; phase, by ; (Okvik); Collins : 1937 (Old BeringSea and Punuk); Ford : 1959 (Birnirk) and Thule itselfby Holtved (1947) and Mathiassen (1927). All thesebasic 22. of have in turnbeen supplemented a number otherworks publications by from elaborate is The picture that emerges one of a gradualtransition in and fashions sculpture and earlystylesto muchmoresimplified elementary The factorsunderlying this curious trendremainunexplained. engraving. in Rainey (1937:697)has mentioned one possiblecause a reduction leisure as of timedue to increasingly difficult conditions life23. of Being an end-product this process,Thule art, exceptforoccasional and of imaginative skill, was undistinguished oftenrudimentary. displays of with small a the to Adhering pastpractice, objectswere predominantly ivory, drilledrowsof decof customarily proportion wood,bone,and antler.Artists birdsand otheranimaleffigies. orativedots on tiny,flat-bottomed Theyalso serveforarmsor even carved'dolls' withnondescript faces,makingstumps as Someofthemcan be identified male or female leavingtheseout altogether. weredepictedeither Thule statuettes lack any sex characteristics. but others naked or else clad in a singlearticleof attiresuch as a loincloth, boots,or a 24. attention paid to thehairstyles women was of hood,whileparticular

in
and As a result climatic of eustaticmovements, associated deterioration, in theThuleculture Canada's northland beganto retrogress ecological changes, aboutthe17th whalesbecamemarkedcentury (Birket-Smith 1959:196).Large and comThulewhale-hunting extensive ly scarcer, whathad oncebeenfairly munities to bandsand family proceeded breakup intonomadic depending groups moreand moreon seal and cariboufortheir subsistence. thistransitional art forms declinedevenmoreperceptibly During stage, in number, and qualityofexecution. in all then, remnants All the inspiration, - theCanadian ofcarving descendants legacyleftby theThulepeopleto their Eskimosof historical times- was muchinferior whathad preceded So to it. much then forthe claim that Canadian Eskimoshad been perfecting their skilloverthecenturies. thecontrary, Whitecontacttimestheir On carving by artexhibited unmistakable signsofcultural J. disruption. Murdoch (1887:389) was one ofthe first comment thiswhenhe wrote to on sense that"theartistic the Eskimo(Alaska) appearsto be muchmore highly developed among Western thanamongthoseof the east (Canada)". A review whatearlyobservers theCanadianNorth of in have had to say
22 See forexample Collins (1961) ; Meldgaard (1960b) ; and Ray (1961). 23 On the otherhand Taylor (1963:461) speaks of possible "climatic amelioration in the centuriesup to A. D. 1000". 24 Bentham and Jenness (1941:45) remarkabout an ivorydoll that it "represents the hair bunched on the back of the neck, BaffinIsland style,ratherthan on top of the head as in Greenland".

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onthisscoreprovides additional confirmation. his During visitto theMackenzie and Anderson RiverEskimos,Petitot (1876:7)merely notedthatthewomen and men decoratedtheirdress and belts with small ivoryanimalfigurines. Nativeinformants statethatuntilrecently almostno carving was beingdone in the generalarea of the MackenzieRiver delta (MontrealStar 1959:21). a FromtheBack RiverEskimos,R. King (1836:108)received fewcrudecarvof bone. Afterstayingwith the CopperEskimos,Jenness (1946:145) ings and makea a that "theydid, it is true,engrave fewsimpledesigns, observed for linesand needlecases; but the 'picturefewrough carvings mainly fishing of the Western Eskimo,and the naturalistic shapesgivento toggles, writing' absent".Fromthe drumhandles,and manyotherobjectswereconspicuously and bone to collectonlya fewivory Mathiassen (1928:122) Netsilik, managed miniatures. noticeable of The stagnation artwas particularly living amongthetribes thewestcoast of HudsonBay. At an earlydate, Parry (1824:537)had along of to references theirlack of abilityin this field, alreadymade disparaging "curioustoys ... rudelycarved". TurLove (1825:37)speaks of endeavour. de "par ci par l, quelques ouvrages dcobriefly quetil (1926:427)mentions that Mathiassen (1928:104)remarked rationpour le dessinet la sculpture". at ; the wholethe IglulikEskimosare not veryskilful carving thereare "on menthisartis in a stateofrapid ... however exceptions butamongtheyounger this verdict, decline".Twentyyearslater,Houston (1951:36)substantiated a that not all impulsewas lacking.Whileinspecting Sadinsisting although one lermiutencampment day, Lyon (1825:60)was struckby the complete Birketto Withrespect theCaribou Eskimos, tents. intheir of absence carvings are of and engraving ornaments unimthat"carving asserted Smith(1929:253) FromtheseEskimosI do notknowone exampleoffree in theextreme. portant beeninfluenced ornamental of by or having sculpture oftheforms an implement ... I have no doubtthatof of withtheexception a narrow spoon consideration, the from west coast of the the samplesof Eskimoart whichBoas reproduces Eskimos". This situation Hudson Bay almost none came fromthe Caribou in by remained unchanged lateryears,as corroborated bothMarsh (1947:110) 25. Houston (1956b:223) and had Of course,conditions everywhere not reachedthat same state of his notstint praisewhenhe feltthattheoccasion R. recession. King (1847)did that the "Aivilikand Boas (1901:113)recorded it. warranted Furthermore, in Island make a greatmanycarvings ivoryand Kinipetuof Southampton from that"realistic this carvings but by soapstone", qualified elsewhere stating later,he declared numerous" are up (1901:460).Summing Southampton not of that "in the description the materialI have triedto showthat the forms value of are in found each particular region verystable,and that the artistic thatofthe than is contact considerably white madebefore greater theold work HudsonBay)". Manymembers ofthenativesin thisregion work recent (West of the Aiviliktribewereemployed whalersin those days, and one may by
26In 1962a carving at was project organized BakerLake (Iglauer 1964:19).

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the of speculateas to whether purchase keepsakes thelatterhad led to a by in At increase the production carvings. any rate,Birket-Smith of temporary not to found among carving be rarethough unknown (1929:253)subsequently of field-work done amongmembers theseAivilingmiut. enough, Interestingly thissame tribeserved Carpenter (1955; 1957; 1959)as thebasis formuchof his commentary Eskimoart. on Duringa secondtripto SalisburyIsland, Lyon (1825:129)judged the whichhe procured that occasionto be "farbetterexecutedthan on carvings Nevins (1847:13)metwitha similar we had purchased before". experience any on UpperSavage Island in HudsonStraitwhena littlekayakmodelforwhich so "did notlookquiteso wellas it did at a distance, I bought he had bargained a in two or threemore, hopesofgetting niceone at last". The following year and thereobtained"little he visitedSaddlebackIsland in that same region, and which wereverywellexecuted, givean of ivoryfigurines menand women, dress".At Cumberland admirable notion thestyleofthepeople,and oftheir of a of SoundonBaffin IslandBoas (1901:56)was shown number realistic carvings from easterntribes.Having examineda collection on a par withthosefrom Speck (1924:143)concludedthat "the animaland Pond Inlet further north, in withsimilar humanfigures carvedin ivoryshow a crudeness comparison of the artsfrom EskimooftheAlaskanand especially the of products the fine Labradorregions". Turner the we Concerning Ungava Eskimosofthemainland learnfrom that "art is slightly thesepeople.Theirweapons developedamong (1894:260) and otherimplements neveradornedwithcarvings animalsand other are of becomethe natural ...". objectsorwithconventional patterns He did,however, smallivory owner "several of artistic merit. which considerable carvings possess are These carvings fashioned from tusksof the walrusesor the teethof the and variousmammals, are simply testsoftheskilloftheworker, prepares who themas toysforchildren". LabradorEskimo art at one timeenjoyeda highreputation (Tanner Withrespectto thisgroup,Hawkes (1916:100)specified that "in 1947:567). theform and finish their of exceltheother eastern tribes ivory carving, (they) and morenearly the work theAlaskanEskimo.Perhaps of approach ambitious thisis due, as in Alaska,to the introduction better of material tools,as a for resultof earlycontactwiththe whites".This contactincidentally been had continuous fromthe 16th onward.Ironicallyenough,these once so century warmly praisedLabradorEskimosappear forsomereasonto have been comin the Canadian pletely ignored thoseinstrumental fostering contemporary by Eskimocarving It development. is onlysincethe successof the HudsonBay art has that,on a modestscale, newinterest been stirred region ventures up in Labradorby local missionaries. Withcertain and then,the first travellers, anthroexceptions explorers, pologiststo writeaccountsof Canadian Eskimo tribesappear to have been In in unimpressed theirartistic by accomplishments. fact,"carving ivoryhad died out in many districts beforethe openingof this century"(Jenness 1964:112).

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IV communities tend to achievea close integration of So-called'primitive' material culture of The extensive life artwitheveryday (Herskovits 1959:45). bears thatofthehistorical and to someextent thetraditional Eskimo, Eskimo, to of Fourprimary thisoutquiteclearly. may categories function be attributed of yore: Eskimocarvings or ornamented carved 1. Decorative- objectsfordailyuse wereoften to to of in theform animalsor humans.In order lendemphasis thisimportant are in transformed sucha manner listed of externally aspect,a number things have servedthe Eskimo how utilitarian below.Theyillustrate objects clearly The for as a stimulus artistic expression. examplescitedcoverthewholerange shaft : and ; ofArctic ; bodkins boot-sole straighteners geography history arrow ; creasers box and buckethandles; cordattachers draghandles; drumhand; les ; earrings fishdecoys; harpoonboxes ; harpoonheads ; harpoonsocket ; ; ; ; pieces; helmetdecorations kettle-hooksknifesharpeners knifehandles; ; ; line clasps; needle cases ; needle case attachments netting weights noseand ornaments pipes; powder horns root picks; snuff ; ; plugs; personal rests; swivels; thimble-holders toggles. ; and tobaccoboxes; spear to servedas charms bring often good 2. Magico-Religious- carvings suchas illnessesetc. (Birketinfluences or luckin hunting to wardoff malign to it varioustribes was also customary depositwith Smith1959:171).Among etc. knives, the dead smallmodelsof usefulobjectssuch as lamps,harpoons, in be then utilized theafterworld thedeceased(Jenness could by whose'spirits' 1928:169). weregiventoys to play with Eskimo children 3. ToysandGamesdolls,and sleds26. animals, of cooking pots,kayaks, intheform miniature lamps, on certain reported were games.Boas (1888:566) Animalfigurines also used for or 'imagesof birds'."The playerssit one similarto dice,called Tingmiujang are and thefigures shakenin thehand and arounda boardor a pieceofleather lie others flaton the back or somestandupright, thrown upward.On falling, to that playerwhomtheyface; side. Those standing belong on the upright thattheyall belongto theone whotossedthem. sometimes theyare so thrown is The playersthiowby turnsuntilthe last figure takenup. The one getting In winner". another game,Ajeof number the figures the greatest beingthe withholesis perforated an ivorypolarbear or someotheranimalform gaung, must of number times used.The objectis thrown and fora specific sometimes up in in oneoftheholesorsuccessively a wholerowofthem be caught upona stick : 1952). (Gessain truetoday, mostlikelyno longer 4. Self-Entertainment - Although to in ownamusement order while their carvedfor often times in Eskimos former east that"all theEskimotribes, Boas (1927:124)recounts awayidle moments.
260). 26 Lyon (1824:54) ; Mathiassen (1928) ; Nelson (1899:196) ; and Turner (1894:

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and west,are veryfondof carving and producemanysmall animalfigures ... thatserveno practical are but which madeforthepleasureofartistic purpose creation". as to Others wellhave attested this27.Holtved (1947:29)however has cautionedagainstinterpreting activities a manifestation as such among abstraction whichwe term'art for of 'primitives' that peculiarintellectual art's sake'. a between Eskimosand Whites, fifth Once contacthad beenestablished Economic function carving all others. for which displaced developed eventually As incentive to themaking figurines sale to outsiders. a result, led of for carving and ceasedto playan integral traditional in CanadianEskimolife, a changerole overto a culturally tookplace. activity peripheral V remoteon have placed muchemphasis the'geographical Certain writers hisartfrom outside ness'oftheCanadianEskimo, which preserved supposedly turnsout to be fallacious. this influences. closerexamination argument Upon did take place Eskimo-White continuous, contact,thoughnot necessarily Provision in the shipsofthe century. throughout 19th regularly theFar North Each yearwhaling Hudson'sBay Company routes. vessels, mainly pliedsteady Land and Hudson Bay in pursuitof Scottishand American, wentto Baffin theircetacean prey.Apart from withthe Eskimos,some of these bartering and frequently hiredon nativesas extrahelp sailingcrewswintered there, up in theiroperations kept (Jenness 1964:10-12). partiesmoreover Exploration on returning searchof the Northin West passage,whiletraders, travellers, wake.By theendofthe and in followed their officials, missionaries government shattered seconddecade of the 20th thesepeople "... had completely century, theancient and Eskimoculture overmostoftheEasternand Western Arctic, were launchingan assault on the still primitive centralregion" (Jenness 1964:25). Odd thoughit may sound at first, carvingwas one of the aspects of Eskimoculture to whichturned to be mostsensitive and receptive White out influence. The reasonforthis is simple.Carvings came to be in demandas and in form and withit a gradualtransformationtheir souvenirs, thisbrought function. CanadianEskimosbeganto look on themprimarily commodities as forthe 'tourist trade'. Abbes (1890:55)and Herskovits (1959:63) the that bothventure opinion arcticcarving first as in encountered earlyhistorical timesneverpossesseda as orientation, is the case in certainother predominantly magico-religious communities. for Hence it was a simplematter the Eskimoartist 'primitive' to effect shift a from or creating piecesforhimself his own group,to making themforforeigners. MacPherson (1958:44)has contributed astuteobserthe vationthat "from first the with of the 19th contacts increasing years century
27 Abbes (1890:55) ; Calder (1957:219) ; Carpenter (1959:32) ; Holtved (1947: 29) ; Low (1906:176) ; Nelson (1899:196) ; and Whitney (1910:129).

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and missionaries exerted underwhicha traders, pressures Europeanwhalers, to takeplace in thecharacter Eskimohandicrafts. Around the of change began to theideas ofwhatoutsiders believedto be typical posts,objectsconforming made". For example, ofEskimolifeweremostsalable and so weremostoften dressed(which and to from fashioned standupright, carvedfully being apart so as to give thema typical due to missionary be partially influence) may assumed of thesestatuettes thecontact Eskimoappearance, increasingly period had or facialfeatures decorative lessstiff patterns representing poses.Incisions backin out withdirttobring thefigures blackona white been formerly rubbed timesadditional In historical of ivory(Mary-Rousselire 1960a: 14). ground meanscameintovogue,suchas home-made and laterevenbattery-carbon ink, hues. of pencils different (Carpenter 1959:49)or crayon Eskimo was there a steadydemandfor the century Throughout whole19th at in the EasternArctic.As earlyas 1812,whilestopping souvenir carvings how Island in theHudsonStrait,M'Keevor (1819:27)watched UpperSavage thanthey "... natives no sooner alongside (Includedamong) beganto traffic. got as for which thearticles theyoffered sale were... toysofvariouskinds, models for Lyon (1824; 1825)bartered canoes ...". Duringhis stay up north, oftheir at RepulseBay, Salisbury Island,and also at theSavage Islandswhere carvings small toysand models, wereprocured the that "... from children he recorded also". Nevins (1847: and begging in them their their bargains directing parents to how"we expected see someoftheEsquimauxin sailing 9-12 & 124)recalled come fromsome of the islands the (Hudson) Strait,as they generally up we we before saw them, werebusymaking several coast.For on thenorth days call the 'Huskie (i. e. Eskimo) trade',and for preparations what the sailors them... They had brought uponwhatwe werelikelyto get from speculating and and of a considerable quantity ivory whalebone, thiswas themostvaluable me but whatinterested mostweresomelittlemodelsoftheir partofthetrade, werein ... Thereweretwo(women) on were canoeswhich lying topofthosethey a trade.Theyhad brought number on I withwhom carried a brisk in particular kinds the different and representing carvedin bone or ivory, of littlefigures of animalsand birdswhichare met within the Straits...". At Cumberland wereto be had in exchangefor Sound,Abbes (1890:55)notedthat carvings and the like. Finnie (1942:212)recounts of trifling presents tobacco,knives, and how from earlywhalers, Islanderslearnedabout scrimshaw how "Baffin and otherknickboards,littleboats and igloos, theyproduceivorycribbage of thesedo nothave theslickness thehighly sale to tourists, for knacks though Eskimocarvings". Alaskan commercialized of in described detail a number Duringthe 1920's Speck (1927:309-11) Hudson Bay. These walrustusksfromLabradorand Northeast remarkable with to a dozen units, up had beencarvedas complete unusualin thatthey were He in extended a groupalongtheir length. affirms animaland humanfigurines seemto existin theEskimocollections likethem that"no other quite specimens Labradorcoast28theyseemto the from northern of othermuseums. Coming
28 Carpenter (1959:45) also reportsthem forthe Aivilik of SouthamptonIsland.

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of standout either a local development thehistorical as in growth Eskimoart or as the exclusiveproperty a divisionof the race whichhas longhad the of of its unobserved students theEskimo".There though by styleamong property thosecarvedtusksand does not seem to be any stylistic between connection botharchaeological from Dorset'multiple evidence mask'finds. Other negative of and ethnological to workwould appear therefore favourthe first Speck's similar twohypotheses. nowknowthataroundthisverytimea strikingly We in Alaskaas a result Europeanstimulus of was taking (Ray development place can 1961:8& 121 and figures 72-74).In viewofthisthere be littledoubtas to More Labradorart form. theinspirational sourcebehindtheabove-mentioned Eskimo as the recently, makingof such tusk-carvings a means to illustrate has been encouraged FatherSteinmannat Povungnetuk. myths by the whenever opportunity to carvings outsiders By the 1930's,supplying The Hudson's Canada'sInnuit. arosehad become commonplace a for occupation Affairs of handled considerable a Bay Company (Department External quantity orders and evenshippedout a number commissioned of (Smith: com1954:8), held at the McCordMuseumin munication 1961). An Eskimo art exhibition Montreal News 1930:59)provided generalpublicwithan additional the (Art of for itself withthe forms creative expression pracopportunity acquainting ticedup north. the Nascapiand Algonquin Apparently Eskimosevennumbered Indiansamongtheir ! clientele (Speck 1927:310). howBelcherIsland In 1938,Twomey(1942:356)observed withinterest carvout nativesbusiedthemselves task ofturning ivory at their "feverishly" the commercial schooner. ings forsale to the crewof a visiting Apparently for function carvinghad not yet overridden otherconsiderations, he of all hazardedthe opinionthat duringthe long winter ahead the unsold months itemswouldbecometoysforthe Eskimochildren. contrast whatis proto In ducedtoday,suchcarvings thenwerereckoned muchless valuable and lacked a year-round and no one market. shipvisits, Manymonths might pass between was too concerned in about whathappenedto theirsurpluscarvings between those dates. Therewould always be plentyof timeto make some morefor the next arrivals.Under different the circumstances, same kind of casual was witnessedby Carpenter (1958:38) among the Aivilik who approach loose it. or might indifferently thefinished drop objectintoa tool-box, simply A decadelaterthiseasy-going to attitude destined change was drastically at theless isolatedcommunities. onlyhad contacts Not becomemorefrequent but carvings nowcould be sold directly thetrading-post any time.With to at such a favourable Eskimosbecamenoticeably negligent less about the set-up, The impactofthesenewdevelopments be gauged disposaloftheir output. may from Leechman's (1954:95)disclosure that "before WorldWar II, whenthe R. M. S. Nascopietooktourists theEasternArctic into was eachsummer, there somesporadictradein carvings, modelkayaks,and dolls,but thiswas never an important source revenue. of Nowthatthere an immediate guaranteed is and marketfor such work,production has increasedand nearlyeverybody, it is more than75% ofthepeopleaccording oneestimate". to seems, busycarving, Fromall the evidence citedabove,it becomesquite clear thathistorical

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CanadianEskimocarving neverthe'hitherto was undiscovered* 'free and from outsideinfluence' whichcertain art writers have mistakenly any present-day believedit to be. VI The preludeto what in this paper has been called the contemporary CanadianEskimocarving phase tookplace in 1948.Duringthecourseofthat and wenton a painting yearJamesHouston (1951a:34),artistand lecturer, to excursion the easternshoresof HudsonBay. Therehe obtained sketching to smallcarvings madelocallyby theEskimos.Uponhisreturn Montreal a few Guild(Pamphlet of these members theCanadianHandicrafts to heshowed no.a), aim is "to encourage, whoseprincipal a non-profit revive, retain, organization the and and developCanadianHandicrafts ArtIndustries throughout Dominof and loss, extinction deterioration thesame". The Guild ion,and to prevent this for saw possibilities introducing Eskimoarton a widerscale to a discrimto Houston to return theArctic it commissioned inating public.Accordingly, The of to in of with grant money order makea testpurchase carvings. followa Publicreaction sale in Montreal. of ingyearonethousand thesewereputup for had beensold out. three and was enthusiastic within days everything and Developof The thenCanadianGovernment Department Resources 29was inducedto take an activeinterest the matter. in ment They envisaged the thebuilding ofa carving dependwhereby Eskimo'scomplete industry up and his economy be market fox-fur supenceon theuncertain might lessened, The Hudson'sBay Company a newsourceof income. agreedto by plemented and at spurred thisplan, and its representatives Povungnetuk Port Harrison This enabled a on the new development instituting purchaseprogram. by was which a credit at chits, scheme Eskimosto exchange carvings thepostsfor to as centers well.Houston returned theArctic to laterextended other trading to of$ 5,000.00wherewith set up and a Government in 1950,backedby grant and withthe Hudson'sBay Company in a finance carving project cooperation wereto look after Guild. These two organizations the CanadianHandicrafts in Canada and elsewhere. the marketing aspect Land and along both in to Houston proceeded visitsettlements Baffin and to collectthecarvin orderto encourage sidesoftheHudsonBay carving had themselves. 1953mostof the necessary organization takenplace. By ings spenta total to According Robertson (1960:50)the Canadian Government the entered CivilServiceand Houston himself of$ 31,000.00on thisventure. for Island),where area administrator Cape Dorset(SouthBaffin was appointed stoneplates from of prints the introduced making engraved he subsequently (Houston : 1960). new the It was during courseof theseyears- 1949-53 that a distinct Whatexactly evolvedintheCanadianArctic. happened of form Eskimocarving is still to some extentobscure.It remains to bringabout this development eventswhichfromall certainsignificant to possible,however, recapitulate
29Sincerenamed and Affairs NaturalResources. of Department Northern

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had of Canadian on appearances an acutebearing theemergence contemporary Eskimocarving a discrete, as art style. unprecedented stressed not Fromtheveryoutset, thosein charge thecarving of project 'untainted' nature thissupposed'primitive* but also of art, onlythereputedly theirfervent desire to keep it so. Houston (1954c: indicatedthat the 15) in CanadianHandicrafts Guild was "well aware of the manypitfalls dealing witha primitive and reiterated thatforthe Eskimo"his art will remain art", to strong only as long as it has real significance him". Saarinen (1954:105) intention underlined wholethingby revealing the that "it is the unswerving of everyindividualand everyagencyinvolvedthat thoughthe geographic 'civilization* remoteness which made'civilization' is bypasstheregion lessened, willnotdestroy artwhich and extraordthis the reflects individuality, dignity, talentofthepeople within few a whomadeit". However, yearsmisgivings inary began to be expressedby Schwartz (1956:145)and Swinton (1958), while successin thiscan Weyer (1960:36)predicted that pessimistically "complete for thenradicalinflucontinue long".An understatement for hardly surely, by astonishencesemanating from had quiteunexpected quarters alreadyeffected in ing transformationsCanadianEskimocarving. What was the natureof these influences As Swinton (1958:40)has ? the out elsewhere, mandatereceived Houston from Canadian the pointed by Handicrafts Guildin 1948provides readyclue. Onceback in thearctic, a they in wanted himto find whether Eskimos"couldproduce out the carvings quantity and of a qualitythatwouldbe saleable ..." (Houston 1952:100).In short, the carvings whose wouldhave to appeal to the tastesof Western purchasers withthatof to and appreciation art does not necessarily coincide of approach the'primitive* Leechman(1954:96& maker. evenstronger comesfrom An hint whoconcedes materials thattheEskimo"is beingencouraged use better to 99) and to work skilfully he can. Thisis notdoneby direct as but as suggestion, by the moresubtleand moreeffective method payingmostforthe best work. of The Eskimois quickto learn... Hudson'sBay post managers, whohave been coachedon values,buy thecarvings direct the from Eskimos". Leechman's use of the term'best work'is revealing it heraldsthe for to was to be judgedsolelyby Westsubjective approach Eskimoart.The latter ernstandards. what Not Eskimo,but Euro-Canadian canonswoulddetermine was goodorbad - a crucial such'subtle' indeed! Smallwonder thatunder point economic numthe an pressure Eskimocarver beganto introduce evengreater ber of 'alien' conceptsinto his art. As a result,"the workfrom Eastern the Arctic is frequently ... of moredetailedand moretailored thestandards the to southern Canadianwhowillbuy it" (Leitch 1956:116). this Notwithstanding trend,Leechman (1954:99)still disclaimed"any effort influence to that "subjectsare seldom sugstyle",adding moreover gested". Robertson (1960:53) decided on a franker appraisal: "Everyone realizesthattheweaklinkin theorganization theindustry likely be the is to of of the art. The wonder that traders remote is in locations original purchaser have beenable to do sucha goodjob in thecircumstances. Whiletheyaregiven as muchguidanceas possible, difficult task. theystillhave an extraordinarily

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in knows general on is the Judgment prices almosttheeasiestpart.The trader market. pricestructure His must kindofpiecesthatare enjoying strongest the thathe of of reflect thosefacts lifebuthe mustalso remain guiltless thecharge tells the Eskimowhat to carve. This is, of course,a hopelessdilemma.The who say that Eskimosmuststareat the skyand createonlywhat romantics influences just being are to tell thespirits themwithno reference commercial unrealistic and the Eskimois a realist." in understandainterest Eskimohandicrafts, The CanadianGovernment's Robertson (1959:8) considerations. on to blyso,hinged a largeextent practical addressto theCounciloftheNorthWestTerrimadethisplainin an opening to is research essential establishthe goodswhichcan be protories."Market of a This ducedand soldeconomically. summer majorexhibition Eskimohandito be on displayat the same at Stratford, has crafts been organized Ontario, Festival. Stone cuts,weapons and impletimeas the annual Shakespearean have already which to in will and ments, clothing be shown, addition carvings thereis also a The object is to establishwhether market. won a substantial will about theitemswhich and for market theseproducts, to gaininformation that It was at thisexhibition have thegreatest public." appeal to thebuying downforthe occasion,was asked how he decided an Eskimocarver, brought out thathe usuallysoughtHouston's advice in on whatto carve. It turned to avoid makingthingswhichwould not be acceptableto potential order the from south(Carpenter 1960a:346). customers moreapparent took place up northbecomessomewhat What in effect was of the routine now.A fairly involving carving souvenirs taken occupation workof and with in handand refurbished aesthetic concepts standards artistic was widely in turn tastes.The resultant to Western output compatible manship art as 'primitive' and rigorously guardedagainstany exploitative publicized trinket industry. that mighthave reducedit to a slick,repetitive, practices that the of project it is to thecredit thosewhoadministered carving Certainly, werehighones. to which thestandards brought thisnewEskimosculpture they of to its logicalconclusion the formation an thiswas brought by Ultimately authorities and artists museum of Art Eskimo Committee composed professional on and Quebec,whosetaskit is to pass judgment thequalityof Ontario from and also to giveadviceon the to art worksubmitted their Eskimo inspection, of marketing theseobjects30. carvingprojectin 1950 an intensive Rightat the startof the original as with itsaimthepresentation was educational up program implemented north withpointers artistic suitablefor together of to Eskimos subjects reproduction, and werenotslow in forthcoming, alreadyafter The results on craftsmanship. "the qualityof the piecesgreatly the first year Houston (1951:34)reported improved". of issuedby theDepartments ExternalAffairs statements Extractsfrom (1953:32)are quoted below. They (1954:8) and Resourcesand Development
so See Anonymous(1962:13) ; Jarvis (1962:5) ; and E. Turner (1963).

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describethe activities whichtook place during1951 in connection withthe : carving project a) "Workof the EasternArcticpeople was beingstudiedin the West withreference Repulse to (Arctic) meansof visual aids". This is probably by settlements well,where Hudson'sBay Company as the Bay and no doubtother storehad on displaya big placard of drawings Houston, providing the by Eskimoswithsomeideas on what kindof carvings to be making theyought receivedextensive (Mary-Rousselire : communication 1961). This method for of that"Houstonmakesdrawings practice G. Carpenter (1951:3)discloses Eskimo carvingsand passes themaroundto other any new and authentic bands"31. b) "The Guild sent a qualifiedartist(i. e. Houston) into the Eastern Arcticto encourage Eskimosto create,in theirown way, the particular the forms whichare mostattractive thewhiteman.At thesame time, teachers to in theGovernment in schoolsintensified theirefforts thissubject". c) "Duringthe EasternArcticPatrol,collections HudsonBay carv(of Island. wereexhibited Eskimosin themostnortherly to of regions Baffin ings) The exhibit arousedmuchinterest there...". for was thepreparation a film of d) Also announced stripon handicrafts in "to of showing Eskimosettlements awakenthe interest the people in the of Eskimocarvof This film-strip, production morearticles saleablestandard". was eventually releasedin June1952 (NationalFilmBoard : Bulletin ings, B). In addition,Houston (1951b) wroteand illustrated carvingguidea manualentitled In Eskimohandicraft. theintroduction meaning "Sunuyusuk", he expressed hope that "theseillustrations suggestto themsome of will the their and acceptableto thewhiteman". The manual objectswhichare useful format thatoftwoor three was comments drawings page withexplanatory per inEskimo and translation theopposite on underneath, an English syllables page. This publication both interesting peculiar.Interesting, is because and Houston affords a (perhapsunintentional) us glimpseof the true state of Canadian Eskimo art at that time. Its souvenircharacterand commercial orientation revealedby the inclusion drawings are of an depicting ash tray, a box, board,match and,curiously holder, cigarette cribbage enough, miniature totem a for pole. Peculiar,becausethetextbetrays singular disregard authenand a casual dismissalof regionaldiversification ticityin art forms among Eskimo groups.A striking : exampleis the sentence "althoughthe articles illustrated notproduced all regions theArctic are in of Eskimo theyare purely and couldbe madewherever materials available".Onemight thatthree are add of Houston's suggestions whatto carvesuffice provide fairindication on to a as to the validityof claims that contemporary Canadian Eskimo carvingis and spontaneous, primitive, unspoiled:
bearsshowsomeofthewaysthey or from (p. 5) "The three maybe carved ivory stone. Often bearand a smallcubareworth a more orperhaps manwith a spearhuntingthebear."

31Thismayexplaintheresemblance someEskimocreations Houston's own of to artwork, remarked by E. Carpenter (1962:12). on

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can or or (p. 9) "Thecaribou be madeinstonewith ivory bonehorns, all in ivory some orlying down.You can polishthestoneeasily." eating, standing, or ice or through ; dog; walrus seal. If theyare (p. 14) "Manthrowing harpoon, spearing carvedand polished Kaloona (sic)willbuythem." the carefully

briefer entitled Two yearslater,a somewhat guide-manual "Senangoat" witheleven drawings in syllabicsand embellished of or 'handicrafts', again was distributed the nativesup to animalsand humansin variousattitudes, of Bulletin: 1953).The Englishtranslation it is hereby north quoted (Eskimo in full:
in The for cleverness carving. things well-known their some are "Eskimos becoming men'scountries them and ofyoumakeare very buy goodand manypeoplein thewhite thanothers it is to let youknow and likebetter much. Somethings likethem they very this are which things bestlikedthatwe arewriting article. of The things theylikebestare carvings people,animalsand birds.Theylikethe together. Theywantstone, ivory single piecesbest,nottheonesthatarejoinedorpegged of orbonecarvings people, otters, whales, fish, owls, seals,caribou, walrus, bears, ptarmiand and loons; stonekayakswithkayak-men a fewivory gan,ducks,geese,seagulls, wantgoodones,so all of but orstoneiglus Theylikebothlargeand smallcarvings they carved. and be thatyoumakeshould carefully perfectly thethings thathave beenmade by Eskimos.They hereare someofthethings The pictures that to arenotshown haveyoucopythembutto giveyouan idea ofsomeofthethings the Makeyourowncarvings wayyouwantbut tryhardto makethemthe are wanted. bestyou can."

These thenweresome of the would be superfluous. comment Further Canadof thecharacter contemporary which and events vitalmeasures shaped the ian Eskimocarving during period1949-1953. VII do In to stillremains be answered. whatrespect traditional One question ? differ CanadianEskimocarving and contemporary a of Limitations scope and space prevent detailedanalysis.Partiallyin art for by withthemethod studying ethnological suggested Haselaccordance are a numberof generalizations herebygiven under their berger (1961), : headings appropriate at 1. Size - Leechman (1954:95)maintained firstthat contemporary are "small,fortheyare meantto be held in the hand and examined carvings On closelyand no large or heroicworksare undertaken". the otherhand, tendedto be thatmodern carvings Houston (1954a: himself acknowledged 13) onessincelarger in higher in piecesbring larger size."Thereis a bullmarket big thistrend. was theway Saarinen (1954:105)diagnosed prices" to carvingshave It is interesting followthe rate at whichlatter-day and to comparethis with Swinton's (1958:44) estimatethat grownin size, more less "wereinevitably small,generally than4 inches, traditional figurines about 1 inch"32. often
32Thereare ofcourseexceptions thisrule. to

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In theearlyFifties, Time Magazine(1953:46)reported contemporary on later whosemaximum did not exceed iy2 inches.Ten months carvings height Saarinen (1954:105)was acclaiming"littlesculptures morethan 10 rarely inches to highand usuallysmallenough holdin onehand".The yearthereupon Arthur (1955:176) wrote that"theyvaryfrom fewinches about 18 inches a to in height, Peter Murdochofthe more".Subsequently Povungnetuk, at rarely Hudson'sBay Company of the began to encourage production 'monumental' occasionthe from 30, to 40 ibs. On another 20, sculptures weighing anywhere Canadian Handicrafts for some large specimens desirousof obtaining Guild, and exhibits, sentwordup north thateffect reapeda heavy and museums to harvest succeeding the had season.Severalofitsoutlets on displayprizeobjects and theMontreal over2 ft.in height. Thistrend notabatedin recent has years, Gazette(1961 : Nov. 29:3) carried newsreleaseabout a 390 ibs.,27 inchhigh a titled'Man cutting seal-line*. figure, Swinton (1958:44)summedit up neatlyby pointing out that "today there magnificent carvings which are ... wouldneverhave beenproduced large the existence under old conditions". other In words, peopleleadinga migratory avoidunnecessary Thisis welldemonstrated Jenness's (1928:132) burdens. by cached"all narrative howon one occasionhe and someEskimocompanions of thestonelampsand other aroundwith too articles heavyor too bulkyto carry us during summer". the Martin (1962:35)has drawna comparison between increasein size the of modern CanadianEskimocarvings withthat of West Coast Indian totem the This doesnotreally holdtrue. Totem polesduring late 19th century. analogy connected withnativesocialprestige, Eskimo whereas pole size was intimately have becomelargeronly in response outsidedeto carvings unquestionably mand.In bothinstances better tools provided means,but the underlying the stimuli differed. 2. Media- The factthativorywas the favourite of medium bothtraditional and historicalEskimo carvershas been repeatedly stressedin this used wood,and horn. paper.Less frequently by themwerebone,antler, No commentator has challenged validityof Mason's (1928:193) the yet dictumthat "stone-carving ... uncharacteristic the Eskimo".This holds is of the equallytruefor Canadiannorth during earlyepochs(Meldgaard 1960b:26). Even throughout ofthehistorical most and of periodfigurines models soapstone for potsand lamps,weredecidedly theminority in 33. except toy Claimshavebeenmadeon various occasions thattheEskimoconsistently carved in stone down through the ages. The Canadian Handicrafts Guild no. of this,Leechman (1954:93)lentit theweight his (Pamphlet b) propagated and to authority, even Herskovits (1959:63)appearsto have givencredence it. Morespecifically, we are to believeHouston (1954e:7),"theEskimoshad if few materials withwhich createworks art.In consequence, to of to theyturned
33 Anonymous (1963:2) ; Boas (1901:113) ; Carpenter (1960:346) ; Graburn (1960:68) ; Hawkes (1916:101) ; Hutton (1912:107) ; Jenness (1964:113) ; Tanner (1947:567) ; and Willmott (1961:37).

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thestonesoftheir which to their land,from tools, theywerecompelled fashion as a medium artistic for Out ofthelifeless rockstheywrested imexpression. and livelyforms, not aginative depicting onlyhumanbeingsand animalsbut creatures seenonlyin their dreams. Even today,after morethan also imagined this art to a century exposure Europeanculture, primitive persists, of original, and virile". creative, cannotbe said to have furnished conany Archaeological investigations A of such assertions. number ancient whichwillsubstantiate clusiveevidence and culturally morediverthe from distant, havebeenreported stonecarvings Alaska. The Eskimos theredid not AleutianIslands and Southwest gent, of but makethemfrom soapstone, used naturalflatslate pebblesor fragments incisedwithhumanfaces and decwhichtheycrudely rockinstead, igneous 34. orativemotifs Of more apparentartisticvalue are igneousstonelamps humanforms on (Clark : 1960).The use sculptured theinsidewithemergent withcertain in this area, together of stoneforcarving stylistic pecpurposes Coast from of earlyNorthwest uliarities, pointto thepossibility art influences Indian cultures (Borden 1962:13). to Withrespect the CanadianArctic, Jenness (1941: Plate XXI-fig.10) Islands.Mention the ofslatefrom Belcher birdlike listsa problematical figurine of or of StefAnsson(1943:401) inuksuit 'likenesses men'. has beenmadetooby stoneson top of each otherto three These are cairnserected pilingtwo or by whilehunting caribou, of a height one or twofeet.Theyare used by Eskimos, linedon both routes them the to inorder frighten herds driving alongcertain by human either are which mistaken theanimalsfor suchmonuments sideswith by can hardlybe said to possessany however, beingsor wolves.These inuksuit, value. On the otherhand,in the Payne Rivervalley of the Ungava artistic which IV) observedcertainmonoliths Peninsula,Hamelin (1956:16and fig. caribou,and owl. These to bore crude resemblances bears, seal, wolverine, have been partiallymodified humanbeings, bouldersmay by glacial erratic Eskimos35. quite possibly probably At WakehamBay (Ungava Peninsula),an unusual art form, of It has Dorsetin origin, beenreported d'Anglure (1962a:34-39). consists by human'maskfaces',engraved in somesixtypetroglyphs theshape ofstylized Eskimosin need of contemporary enough, upon steatitedeposits.Ironically theseold petroglyphs havebeendestroying to carvings soapstone makemodern as theoutcrop a quarry(d'Anglure 1962b:8).A fewThulesoapstone by using beads and pendantshave also been found (Mathiassen 1927:73). Strictly small and petroglyphs pendantsdo not fall underthe headingof speaking, as sculptures discussedin thispaper. are Eskimocarvings Findsofprehistoric actuallymadeout ofsoapstone 'mask' of steatitewas dug up at Igloolik (Canadian quite rare.A miniature
& s* Clark (1964); Heizer (1952:266) Hrdlicka (1944:215 341-43) Jochelson ; ; (1925:95). of 35Malaurie (1958b:555) a mentions number stone 'idols at Anontoq,west to whichmay have been subjected some reforms Thesetoo are erosional Greenland. hands. by shaping human

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A. CentralArctic). It dates back to c. 500-1300 D. or Dorset times,and is and oval lamp (Meldgaard 1960b:43 fashioned from fragment a broken the of Plate 27) 36. The Eskimo Museum at Fort Churchill(Manitoba) possesses whichare said to have beendug up by Eskimos eighty-six soapstonecarvings Island (Volant : communication around Igloolik, PellyBay, and Southampton from one object (the 'mask' mentioned above), 1961). Unfortunately, apart This leaves in doubtthe time no studyhas been published thiscollection. on in periodto whichtheyoughtto be assigned.Theirresemblance manyways and this Winter (1958:156), on workhas been remarked by to contemporary thattheybelongto thehistorical period. maywellbe an indication It to are onceestablished, difficult eradicate. appearslikelythat Myths, a CanadianEskimoshavingpracticed predominantly theone about prehistoric to willcontinue live on. It has in factalreadybeen perart, carving soapstone of styled"ConciseEncyclopaedia euphemistically petuatedby the somewhat in illustrated thispublitreasures" the Among "archaeological Archaeology". from is of cation,thesoleexample Eskimoartshown thatofa soapstone carving which datesbackall thewayto c. 1951A.D.! (Cottrell Sugluk(HudsonStrait) 1960:150- Plate 46). In the past, only forlamps and pots was soapstoneregularly quarried which lackedit (Stefnsson : 1914a).It couldwell and eventradedto regions choseto work Eskimowhencarving, to be important ask whythe traditional than withsteatite.No ready or horn,rather withivory, wood, bone,antler, of the answercan be provided. Although fragility soapstonepots and lamps necessitated (Stefnsson 1914b:112),they only confrequent replacement For culture. thisreasonopportunities a stituted smallpartofEskimomaterial 37. to workwithsteatiteweremorelimitedthan withothermaterial Ivory, muchin articles wereconstantly takenin handto fashion bone,etc., everyday or wornout. For be demand,and whichmight moreapt to get lost,broken, in withutilitarian the objectsthat carving purposes Eskimodelighted working The shape and size oflampsand an animalor humanform. alreadysuggested as of lend to potsdid notordinarily themselves sculpture thisnature, opposed on In to the smallerartifacts. the CanadianArcticat least, decoration these to lines around stonevesselsseemsto have been restricted incisedhorizontal the rim38. It oughtto be strongly characteristic thenthata distinctive emphasized ofcontemporary is of as CanadianEskimocarving theadaptation soapstone the of which to several due medium. Thisis reallytheculmination a trend preferred reasonshad alreadycommenced historical in times. of suchas size,thickness, curvature and Physical impose properties ivory certain restrictions the carver.What is more,the supplyavailable during on is and on anygivenperiod limited, mayvaryfrom yearto year.Soapstone the other handcan be obtainedin largeor smallpieces,just as desired. Nowadays
38A verycrude, of Thuleorigin, excavated smallsteatite was by effigy, probable Holtved in Greenland. Plate no. 40, fig. (1944: 29). 37Parry (1824:236) also mentions soapstone beingusedforpipe-bowls. 38See forexample Harp (1964:70Plate XXII no. 4).

in CanadianEskimoCarving Historical Perspective

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theCanadianGovernment sendsshipments it to thosearctic even of settlements noneis available (Lucas 1961:19).Disregarding where tuskswhich mammoth the or do not appearin either Central the EasternArctic, 'monumental' ivory are whilesteatite can carvings an impossibility, sculptures be madeas largeas it. demand tools,it has becomepossible requires Also,becauseofmoreefficient and to workwithharderkindsof stone.On occasionserpentine even granite are nowbeingused (Leechman 1954:98). attachedto theuse ofsoapA consideration theseobviousadvantages of CanadianEskimocarver it willrender easyto understand themodern stone why overso readilyto thismedium. has switched in by Carving wood has been quietlydiscouraged thosewho administer to the handicrafts project.According one of the guide manuals, (Houston nativeto to 1951:1),"theEskimoshouldbe encouraged use onlythematerials the of his land ... The introduction wood ... intohis art destroys trueEskimo who have a elsewhere withcraftsmen and places himin competition quality of of the material".On the same score,a representative mastery complete that "the Eskimosin the has stated flatly Guild the Canadian Handicrafts are at with all, as they abovethe do CanadianArctic nothaveanywoodto work treeline" (Brais : communication 1961). in The explanations surprising viewofthefactthatwood givenarerather EskimosofCanada's and bothby traditional historical was used forcarvings the Driftwood throughout arctic northland. may not be equally plentiful as (Manning1956:27),but it is just as mucha part of thisenvironment are, forexample,migrating geese. of to 19), According Mary-Rousselire (1962b: "a largenumber wooden masks"havebeenunearthed and miniature carvedfigurines artifacts, including site Land). Morethana dozen at a Pre-Dorset nearLake Harbour(SouthBaffin wereexcavatedby Mathiassen (1927:210)at Button woodenDorsetcarvings had protected Point in the CanadianCentralArctic.Perma-frost apparently thatwooden wellbe an indication a find Such may themfrom disintegration. thanwesuspect(Meldgaard times in common earlier more much were carvings of their for 1960:11).The Thule people too made use of this medium many were dollsand animalfigures carved Wooden statuettes (Mathiassen1927:299). Eskimosof the Eastern and CentralArctic,as abundant also by historical Eskimo to shows39.In fact,JohnDavis, the first explorer mention testimony Gulfin 1585"... many at Cumberland found the from Canadiannorth, carvings as smalltrifles, a canoe made ofwood,a pieceofwood made like an image... Hawkes manyimagescut in wood" (in A. Markham1880:12& 17). Similarly, ivory that"the LabradorEskimosparallelnearlyall their declared (1916:101) is becoming willtellyou,walrus As ivory in work wood-carving. themissionaries is material used instead". scarceand the moreplentiful in upontodaymaybe thatthe One reasonwhycarving woodis frowned withthehigh availablewoodis usuallynotofa qualityjudgedto be in keeping
8 Abbes (1890:55) ; Boas (1901:56) ; Falck (1955:306) ; Low (1906:176) ; Lyon and Vanstone (1962:31). (1824:372) ; Mathiassen (1927:119) ; Pirie (1960:48) ;
59. Anthropos 1964 87

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standards appearance of demanded from Eskimohandicraft southern outlets by and customers 40. 3. Motif A largepercentage contemporary of sculptures depicteither outdoorhunting domestic or scenesfrom Eskimolife: Man-carrying-seal-onback ; woman-cooking-food-in-pot All these tableaux are a modern ; etc. invention to givea vividportrayal Eskimoexistence outsiders of 41. to designed Such episodeswereseldom,if ever,the subjectof traditional which carvings movedon altogether levelsofmeaning and communication. different Multiple associationsportraying interaction betweenpeople, animals,or people and animalswereneververynumerous For the mostpart traditional Eskimo 42. limited of themselves thestatictreatment singlesubjects. to artists would 4. Function Apartfrom as carvings serving a sourceof income, for seemto havelittleadditional CanadianEskimo. meaning thecontemporary do Such itemscertainly not form materialculture.He part of his everyday nor neither perkeepsthemforhimself, sells themto otherEskimosfortheir are to to for there sonaluse. All carvings destined export the Kabloonaworld, has This point, which often is overlooked, gracethewhiteman'smantelpiece. been dealt withat length Swinton (1958:44). by the are of manuNowadays Eskimo'smaterial possessions mainly foreign facture. fordecorating have diminished a to utilitarian Opportunities objects considerable extent and where is concerned seembound (Ray 1961:120), carving to disappearaltogether thisisn't alreadythecase. if Robertson (1960:54)postulates that "the best Eskimocarvers still are a which to likeand which don'tmuch making lot ofcarvings theyhappen they care if anyonebuys". This supposition been contradicted at least one has by in researcher the field.At a certainvillage in Ungava, Graburn (1960:70) interviewed over twenty artists.Withthe exception a seventeen of year old in and didn'tmind all theothers it, boywhohad madeonlythree things hislife, statedthat theydidn'tlike,or thattheyhated,carving. Theywentahead at it in therealization thatiftheywantedmoney thiswas one ofthefewmethods at handfor it. to but earning In thissenseit happens be a necessary occupation, to themajority had becomeboring and mechanical. carving certain authors thatcontemporary Initially, purported carvings, specifitheanimalones,wereconnected in thepastwithmagical as rites ensure to cally in anecdoteby good fortune the hunt etc.43. Apart froman inconclusive Houston (1954b: no other evidence beeneverput forward support has in 118), ofthis44. Without doubtmanytraditional did such 45, carvings fulfill a function
40 This policywas reversedat GreatWhale River (DepartmentofNorthern recently Affairs 1964:2). 41 Pirie (1960:48) ; Ray (1961:151) ; and Weyer (1960:34). 42 The Dorset culture has produced a few delightfulspecimens: Anonymous ; Meldgaard (1960b: Plate 23), and various objects in the collection of the (1963:5) National Museum of Canada. 48 Schaefer-Simmern (1958:6) even goes so far as to speak of contemporary die "Mutter-und-Kind-Gruppen, als Symbole der Fruchtbarkeit angesehenwerden". 44 Carpenter (1959:38) does indeed state that among the Aivilik ivory "figures

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but modern are the incentive. The specimens merely productof commercial initialimpetus thischangein motivation for be tracedback to historical may contacttimeswhenmissionary influence and trade considerations began to the undermine old beliefs. Anadditional, covert, but function modern for has carving beensuggested as Swinton (1958:47).It maywellfunction a psychological releaseforthe by himto express someofhis fancies and day-dreams, to and Eskimo, permitting of tenetsof his own way of life.Thereis also the satisfaction certain reaffirm to which more thananyone else,is qualified do well,and he, something creating and from who he for which receives recognition outsiders prizehisoutput reward himforit. 5. Style- A twofoldproblemconfronts every'outside' observerwho of to strives attainan intelligent by appreciation theart produced any 'primivaluesmustbe suppleinto ofinsight aesthetic The initial tive'group. requisite of mentedby at least some understanding the worldvisionand way of life creation. ignoring of in themolding each artistic role which By play a primary misinand of Eskimocategories thought experience, peoplehave all too often to artistwas attempting express. whattheoboriginal terpreted Canadian of members our societyhave subjectedcontemporary Certain thattheyordithesame criteria evaluation a critical to Eskimocarving using Wyle milieu.Sculptresses owncultural modesoftheir applyto creative narily conin overtheEskimocarvers their and Loring rateCanadianIndianartists The Eskimoshave lookedbut they form. victionthat "Indians are creating lookedat" (in Kritzwiser 1962:17).The judgment whatthey have notstudied rendered Dale (1958:35)is that"... takenas a wholetheseEskimocarvings by or charm vitality and or of showlittleunderstanding design material, whatever smoothsotheymay once have had as naive art has alreadygivenway to have lost the In phistication". Reichardt's (1962:22)view,"the Eskimoswho seemunableto premeditate culture very anything ritualrootof their original takenby Delais the stand-point On plane impressive". a morechauvinistic lui doittre, aussi,dvelopp... lande (1958:196)that"le domaine esthtique sont d'artprimitif, dans leurgenre Certaines parfaites esquimaudes, sculptures L d'un Mosede Michel-Ange, exemple. et fini l'expression par loin d'avoirle acqurir". un perfectionnement aussi il-y-aune ducation donner, on Someofthesecritical appraisalscan ofcoursebe justified thegrounds withonly art a thatthecontemporary phaseis in reality hybrid form carving a within sphere and thatas such it fallsproperly traditional limited content, a Therestillremains lingering valuesprevail. Western where ofcreative activity to the thatno one has had either courageor the insight spell out impression
case in or for in purposes, thelatter carved theround ornamental religious aresometimes it it to evoketheabsentanimalor propitiate after is slain.Heretheimageofthe usually a or through dreamis thought animalwhosemeatis sought whoseaid has beensecured the it its : itself carving imagebrings within influence to the creature to be equivalent not should be however theseivory that carvings On p. 41 he warns ofthehunter's spirit". order. different areofan entirely oneswhich the with souvenir confused soapstone times. 45Spencer (1959:340) Alaska in historical from Northern givesexamples

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what critical standards would actuallybe applicableto authentic traditional Eskimoart. This was preciselywhy Edmund Carpenter (communication 1961) launchedforth a campaignto make the publicrealizethat "the studyof on Eskimoartmustbe a studyoftheEskimoworldview.It demands utmost the concentration whatthe Eskimois sayingto fellowEskimo.Not whatthis on art meansto us, but what this art meansto the people forwhomit was intended".The first the step wouldbe to distinguish clearlybetween moretraditionalivorycarvings made to satisfy need forself-expression a the through or and and releaseofhalf-hidden forms, forreligious ornamental purposes, the created pleasethenon-Eskimo to world(Carpenter: 1962a). soapstone carvings advancedby Boas (1908:337),applying Expandingon ideas originally derivedfromMoholy-Nagy (1956), and exploring certainimpliconcepts : 1954), Carpenterhasattempted cations theSapir-Whorf of hypothesis (Hoijer Eskimofused timeand spaceintoa four dimensional to showthattheaboriginal in is boundaries exist46. conceptof reality whichnothing stable and no fixed to himthisconcept reality beenshapedby thepeculiar of has According physiin standsout or cal natureof the arcticworldwhereoften nothing particular the For the is separablefrom general background. longperiods during winter is whirl cold and white. such In intoa meaningless of months everything turned and an environment forms temporary transient all and do not possessa are definite invariable and shape. Through carvingand song,by recognizing reforms which heldsomemeaning him,thetraditional for Eskileasingemergent mo assistedin this perpetual of transformation. represented He the process thatrevealedform force and cancellednothingness. Whenengaged the act in ofcarving, attempt no was made to force medium ivory the of intouncharacteristic effects. artist The to itself. The carvings responded thematerial simply as such wereonlyof secondary Artwas "an act, not an object; importance. a ritual,not a possession"(Carpenter 1959:38). Another is theory expounded Carpenter (1959:27-28) thatthetruly by Eskimosreliedmore auditory on thanonocularpowers apprehendin aboriginal This was carried over intotheirart,which this sensemight in be ingreality. called an 'acousticart'. The traditional carver notpreoccupy did himself with the task of placinga carving a deliberate in or it setting, associating withan mood.For thisreason, "eachcarving livesin spatialindependence. Size explicit and shape, proportions selection, and theseare set by the object itself, not forced from without. Like sound,each carving createsits own space,its own ; identity it imposesits own assumptions". in mosttraditional reflect suchan Eskimo Interpreted thislight, carvings conceptof space-time the veryfact that they do not represent by specific in episodesor static 'moments time'. Small and easily handled,theylack a favoured side forviewing, can readily turned and be thisway and that single, for Thisis insharpcontrast so many to way multiple perspectives. contemporary which a in domestic outdoor or soapstone carvings portray 'moment time'from
46 For a recentdiscussionsee Hume (1963:3).

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life: (man-spearing-seal are best viewedfrom specific a etc.), angle,and have on been made stationary beingmounted a pedestaland by increased size by This contemporary fitsin harmoniously withour and weight. carvingstyle to of classic occidental approachto art,but is foreign the old traditions the lackedsuchartistic 'refinements' becausethesedid Eskimos The north. ancient to notfulfill needin their wayoflife.Onlylateron weretheytaught think any was concerned. timefrom where of in terms separating carving space regularly the of A uniqueinstance thistookplace during early1920's.An Igloolik to EskimonamedAu described Rasmussen how on one occasionfourlarge had drifted walruseson an ice-floe past his dwelling.The Danish explorer of a handedhimpaperand penciland askedfor sketch thisscene.Unsuccessful laterhe to Au offered carveit in ivory.Six months at in his attempt drawing, on an ice-floe, females of a drifting produced carving "a malewalrusand three and his a landthrough telescope with wife daughfrom them Au ; while watches we Herethen havean 'outsider* seatedbesidehim"(Mathiassen 1928:104). ters an the stimulating nativecarverto produce 'episode'carving. A similarinfluence phase of helpedbringinto beingthe contemporary to withHouston and others CanadianEskimocarving, suggesting theEskimos life. and their scenesfrom thatthey hunting domestic Oncethesenatives depict had been taughtto visualizein thismanner, theywentahead and createda in around'moments time'. centered form new frequently spectacular Eskimoart in Alaska (Ray 1961:120have also taken place Such developments where Eskimosand theChukchi and Vanstone 1953:24)47, amongtheSiberian Artsand Siberian and art was by guidance provided industrial cooperatives the 1953:9; Koltsov 1960:37). Board (Anthropova Crafts with in brought of The organization carving projects theCanadianArctic selfin turnto greater led which for demands technical it insistent perfection, to prodUnderpressure form. detailand complex aboutminute consciousness in a new type of artisthas cometo the fore, standard, uce workof a certain in without inhibitions, other respects himself to less somerespects free express newavenues(Gnther 1957:152 Swinton 1958:47). able to explore freed of as Man used to be depicted quiteindependent his surroundings, event(Meldgaard or location a specific a with single temporal association from is oftentruetoday. CanadianEskimocarvings 1960b:38).The veryopposite while and withsettings, timeconscious, have becomekinesthetic, preoccupied of the form bulkyrounded from new scope forartistic composition deriving to In ofarctic surfaces clothing. contrast thepartial and smooth typical shapes are humanfigurines invariably of orcomplete nudity earlyEskimoart,modern back to a trend has there recently developed At dressed. one community fully This represents perhaps a 16). nude figurines (Mary-Rousselire 1962a: and eroticism, somemore of different closelyalliedto Western concept nudity, thathas alreadytakenhold in Alaska (Ray 1961:151). thing
at collected theturnof the 47Whether same holdstrueforKoryakcarvings the 1850intheAleutian around andothers acquired by century Jochelson(1905-08:647-654), to Islands(Meldgaard 1960b:Plate 51),stillremains be investigated.

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Not unexpectedly, studyof the sculptures thathave comeout of the a CanadianNortheveryyear since 1949,showscontemporary to carving be a of and ideas.The ratioofinspiramelting-pot aboriginal concepts newWestern tiondrawnfrom settlethesetwofounts variesnotonlyin time, also from but mentto settlement, from and individualto individual.To state about this modern is phase,as Carpenter (1960:346)does, thatits rootsare "western" therefore altogether not and abocorrect. rootsare both Euro-Canadian Its in cannotbe riginal.As has been demonstrated Alaska, the latterinfluence so readily eradicated from Eskimomind(Heinrich 1950:136 Schuster : the it has certainly retained to of 1952). In Canada, the oldergeneration carvers a minor This is particularly are noticeable whereanimalfigures condegree. but cerned, muchless so withhumaneffigies Stylized, (Meldgaard 1960b:36). animalcarvings whichlack a "favoured symmetrical pointof view" are not and willprobably in to never yetrare, disappear, although deference Kabloona tastestheymay be naturalistically with3.base. decoratedand provided lacks a Carpenter (1959:43)has claimedthata carving which Although 'favoured also lack a 'base', at least traditionally pointofview'willas a result is which true.It all depended thefunction on so, thisin effect notnecessarily the objectwas intended perform. to Thus from Thule culture have come the birds"withflat for undersides "swimming (Mathiassen 1927:74), probably use in thepreviously mentioned has Holtved (1944:281) drawn game. tingmiujang attention a Dorsetstatuette which to of so "thesolesofthefeet flat thatthe are can both humanand animalcarvings, treated figure stand".Findsofsimilarly in traditional and early historical have been reported fromevery contexts, of 48. was to region thearctic It is clearthenthatwith respect 'base' there no set rulefortraditional Carvings art. as weresometimes in fashioned theround, a result which balancedupright of a was On occasions position impossible. other thecarver them with 'base', having mind specific a in a function which provided demanded this. Thereareofcourse different of kindis an actual types 'base'. The extreme on which carving mounted, the is thusreducing independence its and pedestal and oftenautomatically a mobility, incorporating 'favoured pointof view'. A morenatural'base' can be provided balance on the extremities the of by stabilizeand act as a substitute 'base', as witha for body.Bulk by itself may walruscarving. flattened Again,just partofthesculpture maybe deliberately to makeit stand.Combinations all thesedifferent of typescan also be used to achievethe same effect. The majority traditional of Eskimocarvings not do appearto have had any kindof'base' at all. The latterbecamemorecommon forhistorical becausea goodnumber theseweredestined of sculptures, mainly forthe souvenirtrade.The practiceof attaching pedestalto a carvingis a without innovation. was introduced historical It in questiona Western times, andalthough first at Canadian Eskimo availeditself the of contemporary carving wholegamutof 'base', a pedestalhas becomealmostthestandard appendage.
(1937:306) ; Meldgaard (1899:342) ; and Thomsen (1917:374). 48 Collins (1960b:44) ; Murdoch (1887-88:365) ; Nelson

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Withreference the "discovery" arcticartists forms to of concealedin by theas yetunworked Carpenter (1960:346) theorized has that"Eskimo matrix, do thiswithwalrusteeth- incisors becomeducks,molarsbecomeseals - but withtusk ivory,and seldomif ever withstone". From personal onlyrarely writer both Swinton (1958:42)and the present disagreewiththe experience to At last partofthatstatement. thestartit is notuncommon see an Eskimo it and The chunk hispieceofsteatite examine at leisure. maybe turned pickup On aroundventure thisway and thatway. At timesthosesitting suggestions. to statewhatanimalis suggested him will himself actually the occasion carver thatthe"discovery" however, by theshapeofthestone.Let it be emphasized, more of in some activity daily life,would present of humanforms, engaged evenmore decreases of The of this from point view. likelyhood discovery difficulty or to is whenthecarver commissioned depicta specific subject, episode, myth. the all cases. Sometimes rule existswhichholds truefor No steadfast he times experiin At witha finished to carver concept mind. other begins work inhisimagination and as ments he proceeds, thefinal shapemayonlycrystallize Graburn (1960:69)noted that From his own observation midwaythrough. ... and veryoften theideas seem blockofstone, as "a carving begins a shapeless are as themselves the carving to suggest goes along ... carvings takenup and are of thecarving developedat the downat all stagesand different parts put rates". same rate or at different withthis topic that whenthe Canadian in It is of interest connection Southern commercial Quebec to Government soapstonefrom began shipping Father Andr Steinmann, at a arctic settlements, missionary Povungnetuk, bricksor cubes of this material that handingEskimos ready-cut objected of (Sinclair : 1961). woulddo away withevery vestige spontaneity the hopethatnamesofoutstanding Houston (1954c: onceexpressed 15) in modernCanadian Eskimo carverswould becomewellknown the outside in cases thishas indeedhappened.Such a trend, theopinion world.In certain withthe is and ofGnther (1957:151), out ofkeeping ofCarpenter (1959:41) world.Theirpointofview in the 'primitive' of anonymity the artist complete worldare reallyanonyin artists the 'primitive' Whether is opento question. 49. of mous has been debatedby a number writers The role of the artistin some kindof but and in 'civilized'societymay differ, he receives 'primitive' in conditions Alaska, Ray both.Analyzing in day present publicrecognition worldthe : delivereda succinctverdict "For the non-Eskimo (1961:154-56) ofall an Eskimo- uniHe is Eskimoartist stillcloakedin anonymity. is first to art, art when'primitive' is referred as 'anonymous' its dentified. Actually, fromthe appraisal and, it mightbe said, the character springs anonymous Eskimo it. of ignorance the groupthat is discussing For the contemporary than that of an artistin theirart is no moreanonymous themselves, artists, Eskifor six withletters inches high, every whosignshis work culture another else." from is moartist's distinguishable thatofanyone style clearly
Dall (1913:121); Firth (1951:166 ff.); Gordon (1906-07:80); Herskovits (1959:48-52); and Inverarity (1955).

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the influences, modern carvingphase, though Despite all new stylistic at not 'primitive' is stillEskimoart and distinctively Particularly the so. art, it possessed degree vitality inspiration unmatched a and of beginning, probably in comparable situations culture of contact acrosstheglobe.Oswalt (1961:31) reflects that "it does seem significant that the Eskimosinvolvednot only and but adaptedto thenewset ofrequirements also have contributed original to highlypleasingworksin soapstone".Many will findit difficult accept Malaurie's (1958a:550)harshverdict that"... l'exposition manifestations des actuellesdes esquimauxcanadiens... nous met sous les yeux les artistiques et aspects strotyps vulgairesde la dcomposition rapide d'une socit this modern on phase archaque...". Studiedand understood its own terms, willbe found contain value. to elements supernal of a level Thisis notto say thattheEskimocarvers maintain high faithfully ofcreative Swinton (1958:47)was assuredly whenhe divided right expression. them and intoartists, and craftsmen, mereimitators, added that"ifwe do not 50. make theseclassifications timewill do it anyhow" Expandingcommercial have had a corrupting and of effect, the percentage uninspired opportunities and indifferent has steadily work risen. Graburn (1963:10)speaksofa market which"... tendsto becomesaturated flooded withlow qualityarticles...". or The peoplewhobegancreating workin 1949wereforthemostpart this stillliving Eskimos, as and albeitin a period transition acculturation of (Meldgaard 1960b:38 Swinton 1958:47).The old motivations artistic for activity had vanished, but not the abilityto instillin theirnew mode of carvingan authentic element from their statusas it grows moreremote reflecting present thetraditional oflife.WhentheEskimoceases to be a hunter to live and way off land,hisartwillbecomedevoidofthatuniqueintimacy the on withnature whichit has always been based. Swinton (1958:47),and othersas well51, that"... withthedeathofthisgeneration Eskimocarving thenew of suspects willhave died too". Whatever follows will neveragain exciteand after phase fascinate to the same degreeas did that suddensurgeof 'freeart' in the us from last truehunters theEskimorace. the of Fifties, emanating VIII the and whohave begunto take a Among anthropologists art historians morediscerning at Eskimoart,EdmundCarpenter has beenverymuch look in theforeground. and some Immensely stimulating thought-provoking though ofhis ideas have been,it stillremains question-mark a whether particular his constitutes validcontribution ourunderstanding arctic a to of appraisal carving. He has voiceda complaint that"theapproach haverecommended generally I is called 'mystical'or 'subjective' or 'insightwithoutmethod'" (Carpenter to on 1961:362).Yet if we give careful scrutiny his publications Eskimoart,
60 See also Jenness (1964:113). 61 See discussions by Houjs (1961: Nov. 11) ; Houston (1962:650) ; and Jarvis (1962:5).

in CanadianEskimoCarving Historical Perspective

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suchreproaches notappearaltogether do unjustified. Paucityofdocumentation andlack ofsystematic makeit impossible evaluatehisgeneralito presentation if doubtexistsas to the reasonable zations.In fact, Lee (1960:166)is correct, in arriving his conat of -techniques employed Carpenter by rigor the field clusions.This line of criticism bringsus face to face withthe quandaryof manner alonecan do justiceto suchan intricat in treatment a scientific whether it to as creativity Nevertheless, is difficult conceive (Kroeber 1962:80). subject without intuitive of any anthropologist perception espousing todayseriously of at least an underpinning accuratedetail and consistent argumentation. of Our understanding Eskimoart needsto be furthered the kind of by whichHimmelheber(1938) once conductedin Alaska. Case investigations of histories individualcarvers,including reportsdealing with theirbeliefs, in life.Thiscouldgo profitably handwith about notions and attitudes, general of to Valle's (1961)proposal makean assessment perceptual among processes tests.Endeavoursof this the Eskimosby meansof appropriate psychological the to at wouldfurnish least a moresolidbasis on which consider worth nature "acousticart", and "four-dimensional" about "motivation", of theories perartists. ceptionamongnorthern CanadianEskimo to has No single person donemore developand publicize even in and today than JamesHouston. Withpersistence patience, carving at officials the and disinterest Government the face of some opposition by not onlythe he carried successfully through (Robertson 1960:50), beginning art butalso introduced graphic at Cape Dorsetand encouraged carving project, servedto open in otherhandicrafts the EasternArctic.His tenaciousefforts themto vistas forthe CanadianEskimos,thereby enabling economic up new Houston may of of livingat a number settlements. theirstandard improve favourat time,a situation withindirectly be evencredited creating, a critical in It which, of the able for emergence Eskimocooperatives. is thisdevelopment subof of observers, the opinion qualified may serveto breakup the pattern in to relations whichthe nativepopulation in economic servience-domination so long. has the north beensubjectedfor CanadianEskimo of The roleplayedby Houston in thegenesis modern revealonlya sketchy one. and writings artis a complex controversial His earlier and As of knowledge Eskimocultureand history. an artistin his own right, at art schoolwithall the values and ideas peculiarto havingbeen imbued Eskimocarving wholly he art Western tradition, could nothelp but interpret him. Almostunconsciously, had taught on the basis of what his training on art his Houston endedup by imposing Euro-Canadian concepts theacquihis from hintsand advice by making carverswho benefitted escentEskimo Froma pseudoas buyers. handiwork acceptableas possibleto southern their he Whitecontact, and they by traditional alreadymuchinfluenced activity, about information new a By created splendid artofacculturation. disseminating advisers Houston and other helpedto form of clients, thepreferences Western purposeand a whatMeldgaard (1960b:38)has called a freeart witha fresh of standards workto adhereto higher Whilehaving social position. different in a widerrangeofexpression, was able to indulge the manship, Eskimocarver

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and thisblending indigenous 'civilized* about a genuand of brought concepts in creative achievement manyinstances. inely books on Eskimo art, the Due to a dearthof authoritative reference extentof this aestheticrestructuring neverbeen fullyrealizedby the has did like public.Onlyrarely individuals Anonymous (1963),Carpenter (1959), Lambert (1955),and Swinton (1958)attempt morepenetrating evaluation. a that Thosedirecting carving the sensitive accusations to wereofcourse project the Government 'spoiling1 was Eskimo art by artificially stimulating proseveral ductionfora newly-created market.No doubt as a countermeasure, in versions an anecdote(Houston : 1951) have been circulated an attempt of of to demonstrate supposed'simplicity* 'artistic the and innocence' Eskimos, and their of extreme reluctance copyanywork art.Thislast beliefhas been to that since by Ray (1961:136)who arguesconvincingly repetition challenged and duplication a designor object was commonly of by practiced both traditionaland historical Eskimos. and possessing literate a Beingan affable pen,Houston, through speaker and publications to build up in the mindsof lectures, interviews, managed about theEskiand readers romantic a manyamonghis audiences 'mystique' This withcautiousreservation. mo vis--vis which needsto be treated carving and stateofaffairs beenfurther has complicated thefactthatorganizations by in Arcticcarving interested publicizing interpreting or have, privatepersons of necessity, reliedheavilyon information providedby him. The literature with withcontemporary therefore CanadianEskimoart is permeated dealing Houston's preconceptions, whichparticular to authors have notinfrequently added imaginative embellishments theirown. To sample just two such of instances we are told by Baird (1957:121)about "carvedbowheadwhales: Eskimosymbol royalty", learnfrom of and Harrington (1960:136)that"one of the reasonsforthe smoothsimplicity Eskimosculpture that a great is of deal ofit is donealmostby touchin thedimigloo"52. One storyabout present been day CanadianEskimoshas in particular believedand repeated. whowas the to Houston (1954b: widely According 118) authorofit, "insidethe tentsand snow-houses, carvings neverlefton are the constantdisplay,but like the customof the ancientChinese, the small art whenthe the objectsare keptwrapped and out ofsight, up awaiting moment is thenupon request,theyare passed to the guestforinatmosphere right, All are in them his the spection. partsofthecarving in detail,for guestturning handswillexamine The rather is truth thattheEskimos every aspect". prosaic in wrapup all carvings odd piecesof skin,paper,or clothso theywon'tloose their commercial value by beingdamaged.The sculptures uncovered are again for a whenever prospective whitebuyerhappens orat trading inspection along, timein the Hudson'sBay store. Houston (1952:101)also has put forward ingenious the of hypothesis a correlation between florescence art and absenceofwar. "The Eskimonever of
62 The absurdities spouted about modernEskimo art have been neatly spoofedby Upbank (1962).

in CanadianEskimo Carving Historical Perspective

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and wastedhis energy warfare, the climatedemandsthathe spenda conon siderable amount his timeinsidehishome.Thus he has had theopportunity of his to perfect art." This statement may be disputedon threecounts.Firstly, Eskimotribesalso engaged internecine strife amongthemselves, apart from in hostilities withIndiansand Whites(Weyer 1932:Ch. IX). Thereevenhas Inlet (Central been foundat Admiralty piece of walrus Arctic)an engraved betweentwo from Thule cultureperiodwhichdepictsa bow-fight the ivory all 1960a: 10). Secondly,examplesfrom partiesof men (Mary-Rousselire the showthatnativewarfare overtheworld actuallytendsto stimulate flowerof art (Hogbin 1958:39).Finally,as we have seen already,farfrom being ing for to contacttimesCanadianEskimoart had been declining prior perfected, of number centuries. a comon With respectto the impactof the carvingindustry northern Houston (1954a:45)onceclaimedthat"an important aspectof this munities, the is that it has not disrupted Eskimos'normalway of life". development has in of the disruptive, introduction handicrafts Though not necessarily severalaspectsof social life53. affected certainarcticcommunities definitely withother in at Thereis, however, least one case on record which, together the undermined estabof the factors, organization a carvingprojectgreatly howin 1954,insteadofdispersing lishedway oflife.Desgoffes (1955)reports Island Eskimosremained the summer their to smallcampsfor hunting, Belcher was withcarving. and at thetrading-post busiedthemselves Hunting virtually sea-mammals no abandonedforsome time,so that over a periodof months werecaught.As a resultthenativeshad to dependon whiteman's food,and of on from all carving thepurchase it. earnings theyspentpractically oftheir and tea. Needofflour, oat-meal, almostexclusively sugar, Thisfoodconsisted stateof on effect their has less to say,a steadydietofthisnature a deleterious health. is of Another experience Houston (1952:104)has beenthat"theEskimo and to avoid thenecessity his to improve living withtheopportunity delighted the of the relief ofgovernment through creation art". Whether Eskimosuffers is the from same sense of shameand anxietyas we do withregardto relief, holds questionable(Vanstone & Oswalt 1960:53). The opposite probably trait of thenecessities lifewas alwaysa characteristic ofEskimo true.Sharing the foodand ammunition welcomewhatever and theyundoubtedly culture, Robertson (1960:51)takes decidesto dole out to them. CanadianGovernment home and in doingso probablystrikes a morerealisticview of the matter, or : closerto the truth "In the old days whenthe foxdisappeared pricescolto takeup theslack Nowcarving had to increase. helps payments lapsed,relief of satisfaction to income, theimmense a and to provide steadyand substantial ofCanada." of as thoseconcerned, wellas to thebenefit thetax-payers
53 Graburn (1960) ; Steinmann (communication1961) ; Willmott (1961).

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A. M arti jN

59. Authropos iei

IX for Criticism been levelledsometimes the CanadianGovernment at has was feltto be the a program effect whoseinevitable supposedly instituting and ran commercialization a nativeart. The argument thatby intervening of to a carvingindustry Government contributing the dewas the buildingup As Eskimocarving. has struction spontaneity meaning traditional of and in beenestablished suchaccusations baselessinthesensethatbyfostering are now, of a handicrafts the assistedin thecreation a modproject Government simply ernEskimoartwhoseimmediate had antecedent notbeenan authentic 'primialmost exclusively tive*art, but merelyan intermittent of occupation kind devotedto the souvenir trade. 'Canadian booklet Whatreallyoughtto be objected are a semi-official to EskimoArt' (Department Northern Affairs Houston 1954e),and two of per 'EskimoCarvings' and The LivingStone* movies, (NationalFilmBoard: 1952 CanadianEskiand 1958),all specifically to contemporary designed publicize American acrosstheNorth mo carving for and distributed thatpurpose widely littleof and continent abroad.Theyoffer information contain and misleading either historical anthropological or value,as Swinton(1962:56)and Carpenter (1960a:346)alreadyhave pointedout. The bookletat least shouldbe revised, or better still,withdrawn altogether. The continuing presentday Canadian Eskimo practiceof classifying and prints 'primitive' is completely unwarranted. persisting as art carvings By if in this, EskimoArtCommittee for in the has placeditself a vulnerable 54, one, notuntenable seemto have The members thiscurious of organization position. lostsight thetruenature 'primitive' - something of of art significant culturally within producing the intrinsic not meaning onlyforthe groupand possessing creator of but himself, forthe fellow-members his societyas well. aboriginal If contemporary CanadianEskimoart is indeed'primitive' whatlogicor art, can that "... the justification therebe forE. Turner's (1963:226)declaration reasongreatnumbers poorcarvings of from have been released Povungnituk on the Canadianmarket the method purchase is of by present^ followed the in that communityEskimoesare entirely for pur: cooperative responsible chasingcarvingsfromthe other Eskimoes.The dangerof paymentbeing influenced personalsympathies inevitable.But, much graver,as the is by committee's workwiththiscooperative alreadyshown, is there no reason has whatsoever an Eskimoshouldhavea relative that senseof quality assessing in another Eskimo'swork he will onlyknowwhatappeals to him,and in many ; casesthat to 55. appeal has no relation quality" If Turner is indeedright(a pointnot in the least disputed), thenthis a that modern Canadian Eskimoart is veryfactconstitutes clear indication not a genuine art. one 'primitive' Following along withTurner's reasoning,
64See p. 563. 56Italicsare thepresent writer's.

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wouldhaveto believethatMaori, etc. Papuan,Haida, Dogon,Benin, tribesmen do not,in factneverhave had, a relative senseofqualityin assessing works of to certainstandardsof quality art fromtheirown communities according This is manifestly absurd56.Their agreed upon by themselves. commonly is but art notbe ourstandards, thenneither their based on our standards may in to nor values and concepts are we justified judgingit solelyaccording our to of it wouldbe preposterous hold thatcategories Surely precepts. particular other thanourown, and judgment, goodtasteand critical thought experience, of method determining what are invalidbecausethereexistsonlyone correct and is beautiful whatis aesthetic. native Eskimo cooperative If in the eyesof the Committee, representaand carvings, between tivesare incapableofdiscriminating goodor bad prints can standards onlymeanthattheseobjectsdo thensuchan absenceofcritical Canadian the within contemporary culturalposition not occupya recognized are and carvings not meantto be boughtby Eskimoway of life.The prints in for Eskimosthemselves theirown enjoyment, factthisis still unheardof. We are dealingherenot witha traditional 'primitive' communally significant and new form, art but withan entirely free, experimental, highlypersonal. that when Proofforthis may be foundin Turner's (1963:226)observation at at the guidanceof VictorTinkl,who arrived Povungnituk the end "under and weregiven weretoldto do as theywished artists ofJuly1962,thegraphic in works strength of of notions whatwouldsell,theyproduced no preconceived whichindividual quicklybecameevident". stylesand attitudes seems to be, that a person as To be convinced, Turner (1963:228-9) "to in to activity rid engages creative society belonging a so-called'primitive* rather his workis based on "instinct or of himself a fearor compulsion", that conmeansthatone musthave a veryrestricted thanpreconceived attempt", art or art. 'primitive' 'ethnological' encompasses ceptof'primitive' In reality, of the random, personalexpressions muchmorethan merely predominantly and the needs of his society people. Culturalbackground "unsophisticated" artistgoes about in the to a largeextent manner whichthe 'primitive' govern rolein too Environment plays a substantial his impulses. satisfying aesthetic resultachieved aesthetic The thisdetermination. objectmade or theultimate not of variousdegrees pleasureand gratification onlyin is capable ofinducing the as well. In otherwords, thoughts, the artistbut in his tribalcompanions or culture society of characteristic a certain and 'primitive' attitudes, feelings in createdart style.Individualvariations exin are mirrored a collectively of structure thatparticuwiththeoutlookand intellectual harmonize pression lar society. modern It remainsin some ways a puzzle why this task of screening their who,whatever .Eskimoart workhas beenplaced in thehandsofpersons graspofEskimo other may qualifications be, appearto have onlya superficial such a state WhereEskimoart is concerned, and history. culture, character, nordoes it lead to well-balanced correct evaluations, neither ofaffairs permits
M See forexampleHerskovits (1959).

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whenhe expresses A conclusions. case in pointis thatofTurner (1963:226-7) hisdisquiet seeing"... twoidentical ofa subject... in Povungnituk. at carvings sincetheEskimocarverdoes notrepeathis This is a remarkable phenomenon to which theEskithe But, evenmoreserious, subjectwas a crucifix, subjects. Eskimo mo is a relatively subjectsince thereare no practicing meaningless hall the in even Catholics thecommunity though mission's is a leadingmeeting place in Povungnituk". to about the Eskimo'sunwillingness copyis here Once again,the myth and admonition the In it vigilance repeated. reality, is onlythrough constant has of thattheincidence duplication been the ofthosedirecting carving projects is in of at a low level. Our faith thevalidity Turner's objections further kept to that"theconversion Christishaken whenwe learnfrom Baliki (1959:128) all theEasternHudsonBay Eskimostookplace almostsimultaneously anityof somehowto around the 1880's"57. In otherwords,Turner has neglected for Eskimoshave been nominal us inform thatthePovungnetuk Anglicans the looses most of its strength His forceof argument finally past eighty years. whenwe read in Mathiassen (1928:235)that "in 1919 some bibles came to in Baffin Ponds Inlet (Northern Island), printed the Peck syllabiclanguage with whichthe Eskimos were already familiar they had been sent from ; Peck had workedmanyyears.The Cumberland Gulf,wherethe missionary bibleswerestudiedby theEskimosand one ofthem, Uminq,actedas prophet and taughtthe new gospel.Whenin 1920 his son had shot a whiteman at When where appearedas a greatpreacher. he PondsInlet,theyfled Iglulik, to in of settlement the Iglulingmiut, we came to Ingnertoq, mostsoutherly the ... thewinter 1921-22, saw a whiterag on a pole outsidethesnow-house of we Insidethesnow-house crucifix 203) was hanging it is carvedin ivory the ; (fig. outstretched on the Europeanpattern, withhead-covering, beard,loincloth, arms,and the feetcrossed; 77 cm. long. We wishedto buy it but theywere as amulet"58. unwilling theysaid it was a verypowerful And besides,whyshould the carvingof a simplecrucifix cause raised whenthemaking, all things, an ornate macefor North the of of West eyebrows Territories Council entrusted Cape DorsetEskimos thewholeoperation was to hailed and described glowTing in termsby Houston (1955) beingafterwards and Baird (1957) ? Somewhat moredisturbing the disclosures Turner (1963:227-8) are by the policyon remuneration offered Eskimographicartists.Apto regarding "if parently, the workseemsto have sufficient qualityon the basis of a trial to in thisis doneand theprofit of proof warrant beingproduced a fulledition, the fulleditiongoes to the cooperative rather In than to the individual. this of way thesuccessof a good idea or the failure a relatively poorone does not becomeeconomically spiritually problem theartist question". or in a to This kindofpaternalism seemsa farcryfrom "exciting the partnership betweena marvellously creativepeople and theirsympathetic and loving
67See also Jenness (1964:16). 58For a modern of art News example Eskimo religious at Frobisher see Arctic Bay (1962:8-11).

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by agents"once envisioned Jarvis (1962:5). And since whenhas it become ? artistic to regulate the joysand sorrows Considering inflated customary prices in other suchas a bonusat theend obtained theseprints thesouth, for means, to could be employed give the successful artistup of the seasonforinstance, not will a north morejust and equitablerecompense. Furthermore, everyone as that "insofar humanly satisfaction shareTurner's complacent possibleno of the existsto affect aesthetic thinking theartist.Praiseor criticism pressure of be said to existonlyin the factthat a variation one or two dollars might witha fine for designas opposedto one mayexistin payment a copperplate a but with or, design in thecase ofthedrawings, fewcents, theEskionlya fair mo seemsto departsatisfied". rationalThese Eskimo artistshave becomethe victimsof torturous it to For theirbenefit is imperative discard izationsbased on falsepremises. outside'experts' have tacked whichcertain theshamfaadeof'primitiveness' art ontothismodern phase.The latteroughtto be appraisedon the strength to whilethosewhocreateit shouldbe permitted reap the ofits truecharacter, entitle them. to whichtheirefforts reward fullfinancial

X
in CanadianEskimocarving In summary then, placingcontemporary by to has attempted evaluatethe claimthat this an historical perspective, paper art. it is an authentic 'primitive* that demonstrated findings Traditional -A reviewof archaeological a in the Canadian Arctichad undergone gradual decline carvingstandards was achievement reported times.A low level ofartistic late prehistoric during made contactwithhistorical first who and ethnographers by mostexplorers centuries. and the CanadianEskimotribes during 19th 20th timesthisresidueof traditional Historical- Throughout post-contact of to fashion theinfluence in artwas, untilabout 1949,subjected a desultory and missionaries. Carving whalers, travellers, art Western values by traders, and to a large extentbecame a functions all lost practically its aboriginal tradeup north. souvenir to catering thetourist occupation sporadic made by - In 1949,on the basis of recommendations Contemporary the authorized organithe CanadianGovernment the artistJamesHouston, lot the to in zationofan arctic industry order improve economic ofthe carving of income.The actual source themwith a secondary Eskimosby providing was to be handledby the Hudson'sBay Company of the carvings marketing Guild. Measuresand innovations designedto and the Canadian Handicrafts stimulated 'outside'buyers for aesthetic a appeal givethesecarvings maximum newEskimoart phase. of theemergence a distinct CanadianEskimo at arrived was thatcontemporary conclusion The final It acculturation. cannotin any is carving an Eskimoart,but one of directed in art. Yet, as a valid art form its an 'primitive' way be considered authentic of as it servesat present a reflection merit, and ownright, one ofconsiderable in Eskimohimself a stateoftransition. theindividual

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Boas, Franz Land. Vol. 3 - Transactions the Anthropological 1885 The Eskimoof Baffin of of Society Washington. Eskimo.6th Annual 1888 The Central Report BureauofEthnology Washington. Land and HudsonBay. Vol. 15 - Part1 - Bulletin 1901 The Eskimoof Baffin of American Museum NaturalHistory. Vol. 34 - pp. 321-44 Proceed1908 Decorative Designsof AlaskanNeedlecases. - U. S. NationalMuseum. ings Inc. Art. 1927 Primitive Dover Publications - New York.
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between Relations Cultural with 1962 WestCoastCrossties Alaska.In : Prehistoric America Technical ZonesofNorth and theArctic Temperate Paperno. 11 America Montreal. of Institute North December pp. 9-19- Arctic the between Cultural Relations In 1962 NewEnglandand theArctic. : Prehistoric Zonesof NorthAmerica Technical and Temperate Arctic Paper no. 11 America Montreal. of Institute North December pp. 143-53 Arctic

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Calder, Ritchie Ltd. - London. Allan & Unwin the 1957 Menagainst FrozenNorth. George Campbell,John American of District Franklin. : Research Arctic Antiquity Vol. 28 1963 Current no. 4 - April- p. 579. Guild CanadianHandicrafts no. Guild.Pamphlet a - Montreal. n. d. CanadianHandicrafts no. EskimoArt.Pamphlet b - Montreal. n. d. Carpenter,Edmund of no. of 1955 Space Concepts the AivilikEskimos.Explorations 5 University - Toronto. Press Toronto and in : 1957 No UpsideDownin EskimoArt.ExplorationsStudies Culture Com- Toronto. Press of munications. University Toronto
1958 Ivory Carvingsof the Hudson Bay Eskimo, Canadian Art voi. io no. o Summer - August. ui 1959 Eskimo. (With Robert Flaherty and Frederic varleyj. univerbixy - Toronto. Toronto Press American 1960a Review of Schaefer-Simmern's Eskimo Plastik aus Kanada. - Vol. 62 no. 2 - April - p. 346. Anthropologist 1960b Ohnainewk,Eskimo Hunter. In : in tne company oi man jobcpn ^d5d6iaiiuC - Harper - New York. (editor) current 1961 Commenton Haselberger's MethodforStudyingEthnological Art.

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