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Unit 6 Vector Calculus

The document provides a comprehensive overview of vector differentiation, including operations such as addition, scalar multiplication, and vector products. It explains the physical interpretation of vector differentiation in relation to motion, fluid dynamics, and electromagnetism, and introduces concepts like gradient, divergence, and curl. Additionally, it covers scalar and vector fields, along with examples and applications in various contexts.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
17 views79 pages

Unit 6 Vector Calculus

The document provides a comprehensive overview of vector differentiation, including operations such as addition, scalar multiplication, and vector products. It explains the physical interpretation of vector differentiation in relation to motion, fluid dynamics, and electromagnetism, and introduces concepts like gradient, divergence, and curl. Additionally, it covers scalar and vector fields, along with examples and applications in various contexts.

Uploaded by

todrishti18
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Index:

1. Outcomes
2. Physical interpretation of Vector differentiation
3. Vector differential operator
4. Gradient and Directional derivative
5. Divergence and Solenoidal field
6. Curl of a vector field
7. Irrotational and Conservative fields , and their Scalar potential
8. Vector identities
Outcomes:
 Perform vector differentiation.
 Analyze the vector fields.
Introduction to Vectors
• Vectors:
Ø Quantities with magnitude and direction.
Ø Vectors are represented as arrows with a length (magnitude) and
direction.

• Operations: Addition, scalar multiplication, vector multiplication


Ø Vector addition combines two vectors, and scalar multiplication scales a
vector by a number.
Operations on Vector
1. Vector Addition:
Adding two vectors to produce a resultant vector.
For A = Ax i + Ay � + Az k and B = Bx i + By � + Bz k,
A + B = (A x + B x ) i + A y + B y � + (A z + B z ) k
Click here for interactive visuals.

2. Scalar Multiplication:
- Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector but not
its direction (unless the scalar is negative, which also reverses the direction).
λA = (λAx )i + λAy j + (λAz )k
3. Scalar Product (Dot Product):
Produces a scalar
Measures the extent to which two vectors point in the same direction.
For A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k and B = Bx i + By j + Bz k,
A. B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

4. Vector Product (Cross Product):


Produces a vector that is perpendicular to the plane formed by the two
original vectors.
For A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k and B = Bx i + By j + Bz k,
i j k
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Vector Differentiation

Ø Vector differentiation involves finding the rate of change of vector fields.


Ø It is essential in physics and engineering to understand how physical
quantities vary in space.
Ø It is crucial for understanding dynamic systems like motion, fluid flow,
and electromagnetic fields.

For a vector function F(t) w.r.t a scalar variable t, derivative is given by

dF F(t + Δt) − F(t)


= lim
dt Δt⇒0 Δt
Derivative in the component Form

For a vector function �(�) = �1 (�)� + �2 (�)� + �3 (�)� w.r.t a scalar variable
�, derivative is given by
�� ��1 ��2 ��3
= �+ �+ �
�� �� �� ��

Note: Here � is considered as a function of one variable only. The derivative


of � w.r.t. a scalar variable �, is the vector whose components are the
derivatives of the components �1 , �2 , �3 .
General rules of Vector differentiation

For vector functions �, �, � of scalar variable �, we have


� �� �� ��
1. (� + � − �) = + −
�� �� �� ��

� �� ��
2. (�. �) = �. + .�
�� �� ��

� �� ��
3. (� × � ) = � × + ×�
�� �� ��
Physical interpretation of vector differentiation

Ø It links mathematical operations to real-world phenomena.

Ø It helps understand changes in vector functions (e.g., velocity,


acceleration) in contexts such as motion, fluid dynamics, and
electromagnetism.
Motion of a Particle
Position Vector
- It is �(�) = �(�) � + �(�) � + �(�) �
- Describes the location of a particle in space as a function of time � .

Velocity Vector
- The rate of change of the position vector with respect to time.
��(�) �� �� ��
- It is �(�) = = �+ �+ �
�� �� �� ��
- Represents the speed and direction of the particle's movement.

Acceleration Vector
- The rate of change of the velocity vector with respect to time.
��(�) �2 �(�)
- It is �(�) = =
�� ��2
Example:
For the curve � = �−� � + log (�2 + 1) � − tan � �, find velocity and acceleration
at � = 0.

Solution:
�� −� 2�
The velocity is given by =− � � + � − sec2 � �
�� �2 +1
�2 � −� 2−2�2
The acceleration is given by = � �+ 2 � − 2tan �sec2 �
��2 � +1

��
The velocity at � = 0 is given by, �=0 ​=− � − �
��
�2 �
The acceleration at � = 0 is given by 2 ​ �=0 = � + 2�
��
Examples
��
1. If �. = 0, then show that � has a constant magnitude.
��
2. Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration at any time t
for the curve � = ��cos � � + ��sin � �
3. Find the angle between tangents to the curve:
� = (�3 + 2)� + (4� − 5)� + (2�2 − 6�)� at � = 0 and � = 2.
4. Show that tangent at any point on the curve � = �� cos � , � = �� sin � , � =
�� makes constant angle with z-axis.

Answers:
�� �(�2 +2)
2. ,
1+ �2 1+ �2
1
3.
13 14
Introduction of Vectors
• Vectors:
Ø Quantities with magnitude and direction
Ø Vectors are represented as arrows with a length (magnitude) and
direction.

• Operations: Addition, scalar multiplication, vector multiplication


Ø Vector addition combines two vectors, and scalar multiplication scales a
vector by a number.
Scalar Field
• A scalar field is a mathematical function that assigns a single scalar value
to every point in a space. This scalar value could represent quantities like
temperature, pressure, or potential energy, varying with position.

• Examples:
Temperature Distribution: In a room, each point can have a specific
temperature value.
Gravitational Potential: At any point around a mass, there's a specific
gravitational potential value.

• Mathematical Expression:
ϕ(x, y, z) = S, where, ϕ is a scalar field and S is the scalar value at point
(x, y, z).
Vector Field
• A vector field is a function that assigns a vector to each point in a subset of
space. Vector fields are commonly used in physics and mathematics to
describe quantities that have both magnitude and direction and vary
across a region.

• Examples:
Velocity Field: Describes the velocity of a fluid (such as air or water) at
different points in space.
Electric Field (E): Represents the force per unit charge exerted by electric
charges in a region.
Magnetic Field (B): Represents the influence of magnetic forces in a
region.
Scalar Point Function
If to each point �(�) of a region � in a space there corresponds a definite
scalar denoted by �(�), then �(�) is called a scalar point function in �. The
region � is defined as a scalar field.

Example: Temp. at any instant, density

Vactor Point Function


If to each point �(�) of a region � in a space there corresponds a definite
vector denoted by �(�), then �(�) is called a vector point function in �. The
region � is defined as a vector field.

Example: Velocity of a moving fluid at any instance


Vector Differential Operator
• Definition:
The vector differential operator, denoted by the nabla symbol: � (del), is a
mathematical operator used in vector calculus to denote a combination of
partial derivatives.
• It is a mathematical tool used to describe how scalar and vector fields
change in space.
• Mathematical Form in three dimensional cartesian coordinates:
� � �
� = , ,
�� �� ��
• In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, it includes partial derivatives
with respect to �, � and �.
• Del operator is applied to scalar or vector fields to perform various
operations such as gradient, divergence and curl.
Gradient

• The del operator applied to the scalar gives us gradient.


• The gradient of a scalar field gives us a vector field that points in the
direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field.
• It also indicates the rate of change in that direction.

• Mathematical Expression:
For a scalar field ϕ(x, y, z):
�ϕ �ϕ �ϕ
�ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
Geometrical Representation of Gradient
• Direction:
The gradient vector at any point is perpendicular (normal) to the level
surface (or contour) of the scalar field �(�, �, �) passing through that
point.
• For example,
In 2D, �(�, �) = � represents a contour line, and �� is normal to it.
In 3D, �(�, �, �) = � represents a level surface, and �� is normal to the
surface.
• Magnitude: The magnitude of �� indicates how steeply � changes near
the point:
2 2 2
�� �� ��
�ϕ = + +
�� �� ��
Examples:

• Heat Transfer:
Gradient of temperature (∇T) indicates the direction and rate of heat
flow in a material.
• Fluid Dynamics:
Pressure gradient (∇P) drives fluid motion in pipes or open channels.
• In semiconductor devices like transistors, the rate at which impurity
atoms are introduced into the semiconductor material.
• Electrical Potential Gradient
To analyze and optimize the electric field distribution across the board.
Example:
If �(�, �, �) = 3�2 � − �3 �2 , find �� at the point (1, − 1,2).

Solution:
�ϕ �ϕ �ϕ
We know �ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
�(3�2 � − � � ) 3 2
�(3�2 � − �3 �2 ) �(3�2 � − �3 �2 )
∴ �ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
= 6��� + (3�2 − 3�2 �2 )� + (−2�3 �)�
Now, �ϕ​ (1,−1,2) =− 6� − 9� + 4�
Example:
Find a normal to the surface �2 � + 2�� = 4 at the point (2, − 2,3).

Solution:
The surface is given by:
�(�, �, �) = �2 � + 2�� − 4 = 0

The gradient of �(�, �, �) gives a normal vector to the surface at any point.
�� �� ��
��(�, �, �) = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
= (2�� + 2�)� + (�2 )� + (2�)�
�(�, �, �)​ (2,−2,3) =− 2� + 4� + 4�
Therefore, a normal to the surface �2 � + 2�� = 4 at the point (2, − 2,3) is
−2� + 4� + 4�.
Examples on Gradient:
1. If � = �2 �2 �3 , � = ��, find �(��. ��).
2. Find the grad log r.
1
3. Find � .

4. Find �(�� ).
5. Find the unit normal vector to the surface � = �� at �(2, − 1,1).

Answers:
1. (4���4 + 6��3 �2 )� + (2�2 �4 + 9�2 �2 �2 )� + (8�2 ��3 + 6�2 �3 �)�

2.
�2

3. − 3

4. ���−2 �
−1 2 −1
5. �+ �+ �
6 6 6
Directional
Derivatives
��
Recall that if �(�, �) is a function of two variables, then at a point
��
(�, �) is the slope of the graph of � in the � direction at the point

��
(�, �). Similarly, is the slope in the � direction.
��

This leads us to the question of finding the slope of the graph of � at


(�, �) along any arbitrary direction.

The result is the definition of directional derivatives.


Directional Derivatives (D.D.) :

• The directional derivative of scalar point function � in the direction of


vector � is denoted and defined as

�. �. = �� (�) = �� ∙ � = �� ∙

• Remarks:
1. If � is surface, then �� is normal to the tangent plane.
2. Directional derivative of � is maximum in the direction of its normal.
i.e. �� and maximum magnitude of D.D. is �� .
• Note: There are 5 directions along which D.D. is evaluated,
1. Along vector �.
2. Towards the point Q.
3. Along the normal to the surface �(�, �, �) at Q.
4. Along the tangent vector to the curve � = � � + �� + �� at � = � or at
a point (�, �, �).
�−� �−� �−�
5. Along the line = = .
� � �
• Examples:
1. Find the directional derivative of � = ��2 + ��3 at (1, − 1, 1)
i. Along the vector, � + 2� + 2�
ii. Towards the point (2, 1, − 1)
iii. Along the direction normal to the surface �2 + �2 + �2 = 9 at (1, 2, 2).
Solution:
Given � = ��2 + ��3 ,

We know that directional derivative is given by �. �. = �� ∙ � = �� ∙

�� �� ��
∵ �� = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
∴ �� = �2 � + (2�� + �3 )� + 3��2 �
∴ (��)(1, −1, 1) = � − � − 3�

∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙ � = (� − � − 3� ) ∙

i. Along the vector, � = � + 2� + 2�
(� + 2� + 2� )
∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙
(1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2
1−2−6
∴ �. �. =
9
−7
∴ �. �. =
3
ii. Towards the point Q = (2, 1, − 1)
We have P = (1, − 1, 1) thus, from point P to Q vector is given by
∴ �� = �� − ��
∴ �� = (� + 2� − 2� ) = � (say)

(� + 2� − 2� )
∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2

1−2+6
∴ �. �. =
9

5
∴ �. �. =
3
iii. Along the direction normal to the surface �2 + �2 + �2 = 9
at (1, 2, 2).
let ψ = �2 + �2 + �2 − 9
∴ �� = 2� � + 2� � + 2� �
∴ (��)(1,2,2) = (2� + 4� + 4� ) = � (say)

(2� + 4� + 4� )
∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙
(2)2 + (4)2 + (4)2

2 − 4 − 12
∴ �. �. =
36

−14 −7
∴ �. �. = =
6 3
• Examples:
2. Find the directional derivative of � = ��2 �3 at (1, 1, 1) along the
tangent vector to the curve � = �, � = �2 , � = �3 at � = 1
Solution:
Given � = ��2 �3 ,

We know that directional derivative is given by �. �. = �� ∙ � = �� ∙

�� �� ��
∵ �� = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
∴ �� = �2 �3 � + (2���3 )� + 3��2 �2 �
∴ (��)(1, 1, 1) = � + 2� + 3�

∴ �. �. = (� + 2� + 3� ) ∙ � = (� + 2� + 3� ) ∙

Now to find direction, given curve is � = �, � = �2 , � = �3 at � = 1


∴ � = �� + �� + �� = �� + �2 � + �3 �
��
Thus tangent vector to this curve is = � + 2�� + 3�2 �
��
��
∴ at � = 1, = (� + 2� + 3� ) = � (say)
�� (�=1)
(� + 2� + 3� )
∴ �. �. = (� + 2� + 3� ) ∙
(1)2 + (2)2 + (3)2
1+4+9 14
∴ �. �. = = = 14
14 14
• Examples:
3. Find the directional derivative of � = ��2 + ��3 at (2, − 1, 1) along
the line 2(� − 2) = (� + 1) = (� − 1)
Solution:
Given � = ��2 + ��3 ,

We know that directional derivative is given by �. �. = �� ∙ � = �� ∙

�� �� ��
∵ �� = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
∴ �� = �2 � + (2�� + �3 )� + 3��2 �
∴ (��)(2, −1, 1) = � − 3� − 3�

∴ �. �. = (� − 3� − 3� ) ∙ � = (� − 3� − 3� ) ∙

Now the required direction is along the line 2(� − 2) = (� + 1) = (� − 1)
Divide by the lcm of �, �, � i.e. 2
(� − 2) (� + 1) (� − 1)
= =
1 2 2
Thus the direction ratios of given line are 1, 2, 2
∴ direction is along the vector � = � + 2� + 2�
(� + 2� + 2� )
∴ �. �. = (� − 3� − 3� ) ∙
(1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2
1−6−6 −11
∴ �. �. = =
9 3
Practice Problems :
1. If the directional derivative of ϕ = ��� + ��� + ��� at (1, 1, 1) has
maximum magnitude 4 in a direction parallel to � − axis, find the
values of �, �, �.

2. If the D.D. of ϕ = ��2 � + ��2 � + ��2 � at (1, 1, 1) has maximum


magnitude 15 in a direction parallel to (� − 1) =− (� − 3) = 2�.
Hence find the values of �, �, �.
Divergence and Solenoidal
Vector Field
Divergence
 (Definition) Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function is
defined as � is denoted by ��� � and is defined as
�� �� ��
��� (�) = � ∙ � = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
 If � = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �,
��1 ��2 ��3
Then ��� (�) = + +
�� �� ��

 ∴ The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector field


Physical Interpretation of Divergence
 Divergence is the outflow of flux from a small closed surface area (per
unit volume) as volume shrinks to zero.
 A point � in a vector field � is said to be a source if ��� (�) > 0
and point � acts as a sink if ��� (�) < 0.
 Thus divergence measures sources and drains of flow.
 Air leaving a punctured tire: Divergence is positive, as closed surface
(tire) exhibits net outflow.
 Solenoidal Vector Field:
� is said to be solenoidal if ��� (�) = 0 (at all points of the vector field).
Examples
 (Example 1) If � = �� + �� + ��, find ��� (�).
 Solution: Here �1 = �, �2 = � ��� �3 = �

��1 ��2 ��3


��� � = + +
�� �� ��
�(�) �(�) �(�)
= + +
�� �� ��
=1+1+1
=3
Examples
 (Example 2) Find ��� (�), where � = ����(�3 + �3 + �3 − 3���)
 Solution:
� = ����(�3 + �3 + �3 − 3���)

�(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���) �(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���) �(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���)
= �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
= (3�2 − 3��)� + (3y2 − 3xz)� + (3z2 − 3xy)�

Here �1 = 3�2 − 3��, �2 = 3y2 − 3xz, ��� �3 = 3z2 − 3xy


�(3�2 −3��) �(3y2 −3xz) �(3z2 −3xy)
∴ ��� (�) = + +
�� �� ��
= 6� + 6� + 6� = 6[� + � + �]
Example
 (Example 3) Determine the constant � such that
� = (�� + 4�2 �)� + (�3 sin � − 3�)� − (�� + 4 cos �2 �)� is solenoidal.
 Solution:
Since � is solenoidal, ��� � = 0
�(�� + 4�2 �) �(�3 sin � − 3�) �(−�� − 4 cos �2 �)
⇒ + + =0
�� �� ��
⇒�−3+0=0
⇒�=3
Exercises
 Calculate � ∙ (3�2 � + 5��2 � + ���3 �) at the point (1, 2, 3) [Ans: 80 ]
 Show that: � = 3�4 �2 � + 4�3 �2 � − 3�2 �2 � is solenoidal.
� �� +��
 Show that the vector field � = is a “source” or “sink” field
�2 +�2
according as � > 0 or a < 0.
 If � = �� + �� + �� and � = �2 + �2 + �2 show that
2 �
��� (�) = where � = .
� �
 If � = �2 + �2 + �2 and � = �� + �� + ��. Show that: � ∙ (��) = 5�
What is an Irrotational Field?

The curl of a vector field, in general, measures the rotational tendency or


angular velocity at any point within the vector field.

An irrotational field is a vector field where the curl is zero everywhere.


This means that there is no local rotation at any point within the field.

Mathematically, a vector field � is irrotational if � × � = 0. Otherwise, the


field is said to be rotational field.
Relation to Curl
The curl of a vector field � = (�1 , �2 , �3 ) is given by:
� � �
� � �
����(�) = � × � =
�� �� ��
�1 �2 �3

A field is irrotational if its curl is zero.


What is a Conservative Field?

A conservative field is a vector field that can be expressed as the


gradient of some scalar potential function.

It is a vector field where the work done by the field on an object moving
along a closed path is independent of the path taken.

Mathematically, a vector field � is conservative if � = �� for some scalar


function �.
Examples:
1) Determine if � = (2�� + 3)� + (�2 − 2�)� is a conservative field.
Solution:
Compute the Curl:
� � �
� � �
��= =
�� �� ��
�1 �2 F 3
��3 ��2 ��3 ��1 ��2 ��1
= − �− − �+ − �
�� �� �� �� �� ��
= 0� − 0� + (2� − 2�)� = 0
∴ Given field is conservative.
2) Show that � = (�sin � − sin �)� + (�sin � + 2��)�+(�� cos � + �2 ) � is
irrotational.
Solution:
Compute the Curl:
� � �
� � �
��= =
�� �� ��
�1 �2 F3
��3 ��2 ��3 ��1 ��2 ��1
= − �− − �+ − �
�� �� �� �� �� ��
= (�cos � + 2� − �cos � − 2� )� − (�cos � − �cos �) � + (sin � − sin � )� = 0
∴ Given field is irrotational.
Physical Interpretation
 Irrotational fields have no rotation or circulation.

 A conservative field represents a force field where the work done by the
force on an object depends only on the initial and final positions of the
object, not on the path taken. For example, in a gravitational field, the
work done in moving an object from one point to another depends only
on the initial and final heights, not on the path taken.
 Note: All conservative fields are irrotational, but all irrotational fields
need not be conservative.
Solve :
1) Given the vector field � = (�, − �), determine if it is irrotational or not.

2) Find a scalar potential f for the conservative field � = (2��, �2 ).

3) For the vector field � = (��, ��, ��), show that it is irrotational.

4) Verify if the vector field � = (�� , �� , �� ) is conservative.

5) Determine if the vector field � = (sin (�) ,cos (�) , 0) is irrotational.


Scalar Potential associated with
Conservative Vector fields
Potential Function (�):

A vector function � is said to be a conservative vector field if


� = �� (i.e. � is the gradient of a scalar function �).
In this case � is known as the potential function of �.
If we apply � to a vector function � instead of scalar function � we
get Divergence and Curl.

Curl of � is denoted by � × � also known as rotation �.


Irrotational or Conservative Field :
A vector point function � is said to be irrotational if Curl(� )
is zero at every point where � is defined. Otherwise it is said to be
rotational. The curl of any vector point function, in general gives
the measure of the angular velocity at any point of the vector field.
Method of finding � :
If � is irrotational then � = ��
∴ �. �� = ��. �� (� = �� + �� + z� and �� = ��� + ��� + dz� )
∴ �1 (�, �, �)�� + �2 (�, �, �)�� + �3 (�, �, �)�� = ��
If � is irrotational integral on LHS will be total differential of some
function. Taking integration on both sides
.
����� �� �2
�1 (�, �, �)�� + ��
���� ���� �
�, � ����� � �����
����� �� �3
+ �� + � = �
���� ���� � ��� �
Ex.1. Is the vector field � irrotational? If so, find its scalar potential �.
� = (����� − ����)� + (����� + 2��)� + (������ + �2 )�
Solution : let � = (����� − ����)� + (����� + 2��)� + (������ + �2 )�
We know that vector field � is irrotational if � × � = 0
� � �
� � �
��= �� �� ��
����� − ���� ����� + 2�� ������ + �2
� 2 �
= � (������ + � ) − (����� + 2��) −
�� ��
� 2

� (������ + � ) − (����� − ����) +
�� ��
� �
� (����� + 2��) − (����� − ����)
�� ��
�×� = 0 ; ∴ � is irrotational.
To find scalar potential � :
We know that vector field � is irrotational then there exist scalar
potential � such that � = ��
Operating d� scalarly on both sides we get,
�. d� = ��. d� ⟹ �. d� = ��
(����� − ����)�� + (����� + 2��)�� + (������ + �2 )�� = ��
The differential on LHS is an exact differential,
integrating
.
on both sides we get

(����� − ����)�� + (2��)�� + 0 �� + � = �


�, � ����� � �����

∴ � = ������ + ���� + �2 � + �
Examples for Practice:
Ex. 2. Show that � = (���� ����)� + (���� ����)� − (��� ����)�
is irrotational. Find � if � = ��.
Ans: � = ��� ���� + �
Ex. 3. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (�2 ���� + �2 )� + (2�����)� + (2��)�.
Ans: � = �2 ���� + ��2 + �
Ex. 4. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (2��3 + 6�)� + (6� − 2��)� + (3�2 �2 − �2 )�.
Ans: � = �2 �3 + 6�� − �2 � + �
Ex. 5. If � = (2���2 )� + (�2 �2 + ����(��))� + (2�2 �� + ����(��)�
Show that � is irrotational. Find � if � = ��.
Ans: � = �2 ��2 + sin(��) + �

Ex. 6. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (6�� + �3 )� + (3�2 − �)� + (3��2 − �)�.
Ans: � = 3�2 � + ��3 − �� + �
VECTOR IDENTITIES
Given scalar function ∅ and vector functions �, �. Following
results involving operation of ∇ are useful.
1) ∇.(∅ �) = ∇∅. � + ∅(�. �) OR Div (∅ � ) = �. Grad ∅ + ∅ Div �
Proof: Let, � = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
∅� = ∅ �1 � + ∅�2 � + ∅�3 �
� � �
L. H. S. = ∇.(∅ �) = (∅ �1 ) + (∅ �2 ) + (∅ �3 )
�� �� ��
��1 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��3 �∅
=∅ + �1 +∅ +�2 +∅ + �3
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��1 ��2 ��3 �∅ �∅ �∅
=∅ + + +�1 +�2 + �3
�� �� �� �� �� ��
�∅ �∅ �∅
= ∅(�. �) +(�1 � + �2 � + �3 �). � +� +�
�� �� ��
= ∅(�. �) + �. ∇∅ = R. H. S.
Alternatively, the result can be proved by symbolic procedure.
� being vector differential operator, it behaves like an operator

D = just as
��
� (��) = ��� + ��� = �� (��) + �� (��)
We can write ∇.(∅ �) = ∇∅ . (∅ �) + ∇� . (∅�)
(the suffix of ∇ is to be treated as constant in each expression.)
= ∅ (∇∅ . �) +� . ∇� ∅.
Omitting the suffix now = ∅ (∇. �) +� . ∇∅
Symbolic procedure is not rigorous way of presenting the proof
of vector identities, but is quite useful in solution of problems.
2) ∇×(∅ �) = ∇∅×� + ∅(� × �)
OR curl (∅ � ) = Grad ∅ × �+ ∅ curl �
Proof: As before, let, � = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
� � �
� � �
L. H. S. = ∇×(∅ �) = �� �� ��
∅�1 ∅�2 ∅�3
� � � �
=� (∅�3 ) − (∅�2 ) + � (∅�1 ) − (∅�3 )
�� �� �� ��
� �
+� (∅�2 ) − (∅�1 )
�� ��
��3 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��1 �∅
=� ∅ + �3 +− ∅ − �2 + � ∅ + �1 −
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��3 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��1 �∅
∅ − �3 +� ∅ + �2 +− ∅ − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��3 ��2 ��1 ��3 ��2 ��1
=∅ � − + � − +� −
�� �� �� �� �� ��
�∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅
+� �3 − �2 + � �1 − �3 + � �2 − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��

= ∅(� × �) + ∇∅×�
� � �
�∅ �∅ �∅
For ∇∅×� =
�� �� ��
�1 �2 �3
�∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅
= � �3 − �2 + � �1 − �3 + � �2 − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��

Which proves the result.


Alternatively, ∇×(∅ �) = ∇∅ ×(∅ �) + ∇� ×(∅�)
= ∅ (∇∅ ×�) + ∇� × (∅ �)
= ∅(� × �) + ∇∅×� (Dropping the suffixes)
i.e. ∇×(∅ �) = ∅(� × �) + ∇∅×�
3) � . ( � × �) = � . ( � × � ) − � ( � × � )
OR Div . ( � × �) = � . (curl � ) − � ( ����� )
4) � × ( � × �) = � ( � . � ) − (� . �) � + ( � . � )� − � . ( � × � )
5)� ( � . �) = � × ( � × � ) + (� . �) � + � × ( � × � ) + ( � . � )�
Using component method, the expressions involving second order
differential operators can also be obtained.
1)∇ . ∇∅ or divergence Grade ∅
2) ∇ × ∇∅ or curl Grade ∅
3) � (�. �) = Grad Div �
4) � (� × �) or Div curl �
5) � × (� × �) or curl curl �
LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAE
� � � �∅ �∅ �∅
v �=� +� +� v �∅ = � +� +�
�� �� �� �� �� ��

v � (u ± v) = �u ± �v v � (uv) = u�v+ v�u


� v��−u�� v �( au ) = a � u
v� =
� �2
′ �′ (r)
v � (f (u)) = � (u) (�u)
v �f(r) = �

v d∅ = � ∅ . d� v D.D. of ∅ = � ∅ . �

v div � = � � =
��1
+
��2
+
��3 v � � = 0 = � is solenoidal
�� �� ��
v � (�. �) = � v � (�. �) = 0
v rot (�) = curl (�) = �× � = v � � = 0 = � is solenoidal
� � �
� � �
�� �� ��
�1 �2 �3
v �.�=0,�× �=0 v �.�=3,�× �=0
v � . (∅ �) =∅(� �) + ∇∅. � v ∇×(∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� + ∅(� × �)

v � . ( � × �) = � . ( � × � ) − � . v � × ( � × �) = � ( � . � ) −
(� �) (� . �) � +
( � . � )� − � . ( � × � )
v � ( � . �) = � × ( � × � ) + (� . �) � + � × ( � × � ) + ( � . � )�
v � . (�� �) = (n + 3) �� v � × (�� �) = 0
∇ . ∇∅ = (∇ . ∇)∅ = ∇2 ∅ v∇ =2 �2
+
�2
+
�2
�2∅ �2∅ �2∅ ��2 ��2 ��2
∇2 ∅ = 2 + 2 + 2 2
∇ ∅ = 0 is Laplace equation
�� �� ��
v∇ × ∇∅ = 0; � (� × �) = 0 v� × (� × �) = curl curl � ; � (�. �) -
∇2 �
v� (� × �) = � × (� × �) + vGroup Operator
∇2 � ≡ a. � = �1

+ �2

+ �3

�� �� ��
PROBLEMS ON VECTOR
IDENTITIES
Example 1) Given � = xyz � + (��� � − �� �) � + ��� � , � = �� � +
(��� ) � + (1 + 2z) � , ∅ xy + yz + ��
Find (i) � . � (ii) � × � (iii) � (∅ �) (iv) � × (∅ �) at (1, 0, -1).
Solution:
� � 2 2 �
(i) � . � = ( xyz ) + (2� � − � �)+ (��3 )
�� �� ��

= yz – 2xy + 3x�2
[� . �](1, 0, −1) = 3
� � �
� � �
(ii) [� × �] = �� �� ��
= - 2y �
2
� 2�� (1 + 2�)
[� × �](1, 0, −1) = 0
(iii) � (∅ �) = ∇∅. � + ∅(� �)
�∅ �∅ �∅
∇∅ = � + � + � = y � + (� + �)� + (� + 2�)�
�� �� ��
∇∅ (1, 0, −1) = 0 + 0 – 2� = – 2�
∇∅ (1, 0, −1) =1,�. �=3
∴ � (∅ �) = – 2� (– 2�– �) + 1(3) = 2 + 3 = 5
(iv) � × (∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� + ∅(� × �)
= ∇ ∅×� as � × � = 0
� (1, 0, −1) = �– � , ∇∅ = – 2�
� × (∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� = – 2� × (�– �) = -2�
Example 2) For scalar functions ∅ and φ, Show that
i. ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ - φ ∇ ∅ ) = ∅ ∇2 φ - φ ∇2 ∅
ii. ∇2 (∅ φ) = ∅ ∇2 φ + 2 ∇∅ . ∇φ + φ ∇2 ∅
Solution: (i) ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ) = ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ (∇. (∇φ )) = ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ
∇ . (φ ∇ ∅) = ∇φ ∇∅ + φ ∇2 ∅
∇.(∅ ∇ φ - φ ∇ ∅) = ∇.(∅ ∇ φ) - ∇.(φ ∇ ∅)
= ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ - ∇φ ∇∅ - φ ∇2 ∅
= ∅ ∇2 φ - φ ∇2 ∅
(ii) ∇2 (∅ φ) = ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ + φ ∇ ∅ )
= ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ + ∇φ ∇∅ + φ
∇2 ∅
= ∅ ∇2 φ + 2 ∇φ ∇∅ + φ ∇2 ∅
Example 3) With usual notations, show that
i. ∇ ×[� × (� × �)] = � × �
ii. ∇ ×[(� × �) × (� × �)] = � × (� × �) + � × (� × �)
Solution: (i) [� × (� × �)] = (� . �)� - (� . �)�
∇ ×[� × (� × �)] = ∇ × [(� . �)� - (� . �)�]
= ∇ × [(� . �)�] - ∇ × [(� . �)�]
= ∇ × (� . �) × � + (� . �)� × � - ∇ × (� . �) × � - (� .
�)(� × �)
=�� [� , � being constant vectors]
∇×� = 0 , ∇ . (� . �) = 0 and ∇ × � = 0
(ii) L. H. S. = ∇ ×[(� × �) × (� × �)]
Let � = (� × �)
[(� × �) × (� × �)] = � . (� × �) =( � × �) . �
[ by interchanging dot and cross product ]
= [( � × �)× � ] . � = - { �× (� × �)} . �
= {( �. �). � − (�. �) �} . �
= - (�. �) (�. �) + (�. �) (�. �)
L. H. S. = ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �) - (�. �) (�. �) ]
= ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �)] - ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �) ]
= (�. �) � ( �2 ) - (�. �) �(�. �) - (�. �)� (�. �) - (�. �)� (�. �)
Now, � ( �2 ) = 2�, �(�. �) = 0, �(�. �) = �, � (�. �) = �
L. H. S. = 2(�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � … [ �(�. �) = 0]
R. H. S. = � × (� × �) + � × (� × �)
= (�. �) � - (�. �) � + (�. �) � - (�. �) �
= 2(�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) �
L. H. S. = R. H. S. which proves the result.

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