Unit 6 Vector Calculus
Unit 6 Vector Calculus
1. Outcomes
2. Physical interpretation of Vector differentiation
3. Vector differential operator
4. Gradient and Directional derivative
5. Divergence and Solenoidal field
6. Curl of a vector field
7. Irrotational and Conservative fields , and their Scalar potential
8. Vector identities
Outcomes:
Perform vector differentiation.
Analyze the vector fields.
Introduction to Vectors
• Vectors:
Ø Quantities with magnitude and direction.
Ø Vectors are represented as arrows with a length (magnitude) and
direction.
2. Scalar Multiplication:
- Multiplying a vector by a scalar changes the magnitude of the vector but not
its direction (unless the scalar is negative, which also reverses the direction).
λA = (λAx )i + λAy j + (λAz )k
3. Scalar Product (Dot Product):
Produces a scalar
Measures the extent to which two vectors point in the same direction.
For A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k and B = Bx i + By j + Bz k,
A. B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
For a vector function �(�) = �1 (�)� + �2 (�)� + �3 (�)� w.r.t a scalar variable
�, derivative is given by
�� ��1 ��2 ��3
= �+ �+ �
�� �� �� ��
� �� ��
2. (�. �) = �. + .�
�� �� ��
� �� ��
3. (� × � ) = � × + ×�
�� �� ��
Physical interpretation of vector differentiation
Velocity Vector
- The rate of change of the position vector with respect to time.
��(�) �� �� ��
- It is �(�) = = �+ �+ �
�� �� �� ��
- Represents the speed and direction of the particle's movement.
Acceleration Vector
- The rate of change of the velocity vector with respect to time.
��(�) �2 �(�)
- It is �(�) = =
�� ��2
Example:
For the curve � = �−� � + log (�2 + 1) � − tan � �, find velocity and acceleration
at � = 0.
Solution:
�� −� 2�
The velocity is given by =− � � + � − sec2 � �
�� �2 +1
�2 � −� 2−2�2
The acceleration is given by = � �+ 2 � − 2tan �sec2 �
��2 � +1
��
The velocity at � = 0 is given by, �=0 =− � − �
��
�2 �
The acceleration at � = 0 is given by 2 �=0 = � + 2�
��
Examples
��
1. If �. = 0, then show that � has a constant magnitude.
��
2. Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration at any time t
for the curve � = ��cos � � + ��sin � �
3. Find the angle between tangents to the curve:
� = (�3 + 2)� + (4� − 5)� + (2�2 − 6�)� at � = 0 and � = 2.
4. Show that tangent at any point on the curve � = �� cos � , � = �� sin � , � =
�� makes constant angle with z-axis.
Answers:
�� �(�2 +2)
2. ,
1+ �2 1+ �2
1
3.
13 14
Introduction of Vectors
• Vectors:
Ø Quantities with magnitude and direction
Ø Vectors are represented as arrows with a length (magnitude) and
direction.
• Examples:
Temperature Distribution: In a room, each point can have a specific
temperature value.
Gravitational Potential: At any point around a mass, there's a specific
gravitational potential value.
• Mathematical Expression:
ϕ(x, y, z) = S, where, ϕ is a scalar field and S is the scalar value at point
(x, y, z).
Vector Field
• A vector field is a function that assigns a vector to each point in a subset of
space. Vector fields are commonly used in physics and mathematics to
describe quantities that have both magnitude and direction and vary
across a region.
• Examples:
Velocity Field: Describes the velocity of a fluid (such as air or water) at
different points in space.
Electric Field (E): Represents the force per unit charge exerted by electric
charges in a region.
Magnetic Field (B): Represents the influence of magnetic forces in a
region.
Scalar Point Function
If to each point �(�) of a region � in a space there corresponds a definite
scalar denoted by �(�), then �(�) is called a scalar point function in �. The
region � is defined as a scalar field.
• Mathematical Expression:
For a scalar field ϕ(x, y, z):
�ϕ �ϕ �ϕ
�ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
Geometrical Representation of Gradient
• Direction:
The gradient vector at any point is perpendicular (normal) to the level
surface (or contour) of the scalar field �(�, �, �) passing through that
point.
• For example,
In 2D, �(�, �) = � represents a contour line, and �� is normal to it.
In 3D, �(�, �, �) = � represents a level surface, and �� is normal to the
surface.
• Magnitude: The magnitude of �� indicates how steeply � changes near
the point:
2 2 2
�� �� ��
�ϕ = + +
�� �� ��
Examples:
• Heat Transfer:
Gradient of temperature (∇T) indicates the direction and rate of heat
flow in a material.
• Fluid Dynamics:
Pressure gradient (∇P) drives fluid motion in pipes or open channels.
• In semiconductor devices like transistors, the rate at which impurity
atoms are introduced into the semiconductor material.
• Electrical Potential Gradient
To analyze and optimize the electric field distribution across the board.
Example:
If �(�, �, �) = 3�2 � − �3 �2 , find �� at the point (1, − 1,2).
Solution:
�ϕ �ϕ �ϕ
We know �ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
�(3�2 � − � � ) 3 2
�(3�2 � − �3 �2 ) �(3�2 � − �3 �2 )
∴ �ϕ = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
= 6��� + (3�2 − 3�2 �2 )� + (−2�3 �)�
Now, �ϕ (1,−1,2) =− 6� − 9� + 4�
Example:
Find a normal to the surface �2 � + 2�� = 4 at the point (2, − 2,3).
Solution:
The surface is given by:
�(�, �, �) = �2 � + 2�� − 4 = 0
The gradient of �(�, �, �) gives a normal vector to the surface at any point.
�� �� ��
��(�, �, �) = �+ �+ �
�� �y �z
= (2�� + 2�)� + (�2 )� + (2�)�
�(�, �, �) (2,−2,3) =− 2� + 4� + 4�
Therefore, a normal to the surface �2 � + 2�� = 4 at the point (2, − 2,3) is
−2� + 4� + 4�.
Examples on Gradient:
1. If � = �2 �2 �3 , � = ��, find �(��. ��).
2. Find the grad log r.
1
3. Find � .
�
4. Find �(�� ).
5. Find the unit normal vector to the surface � = �� at �(2, − 1,1).
Answers:
1. (4���4 + 6��3 �2 )� + (2�2 �4 + 9�2 �2 �2 )� + (8�2 ��3 + 6�2 �3 �)�
�
2.
�2
�
3. − 3
�
4. ���−2 �
−1 2 −1
5. �+ �+ �
6 6 6
Directional
Derivatives
��
Recall that if �(�, �) is a function of two variables, then at a point
��
(�, �) is the slope of the graph of � in the � direction at the point
��
(�, �). Similarly, is the slope in the � direction.
��
(� + 2� − 2� )
∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2
1−2+6
∴ �. �. =
9
5
∴ �. �. =
3
iii. Along the direction normal to the surface �2 + �2 + �2 = 9
at (1, 2, 2).
let ψ = �2 + �2 + �2 − 9
∴ �� = 2� � + 2� � + 2� �
∴ (��)(1,2,2) = (2� + 4� + 4� ) = � (say)
(2� + 4� + 4� )
∴ �. �. = (� − � − 3� ) ∙
(2)2 + (4)2 + (4)2
2 − 4 − 12
∴ �. �. =
36
−14 −7
∴ �. �. = =
6 3
• Examples:
2. Find the directional derivative of � = ��2 �3 at (1, 1, 1) along the
tangent vector to the curve � = �, � = �2 , � = �3 at � = 1
Solution:
Given � = ��2 �3 ,
�
We know that directional derivative is given by �. �. = �� ∙ � = �� ∙
�
�� �� ��
∵ �� = �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
∴ �� = �2 �3 � + (2���3 )� + 3��2 �2 �
∴ (��)(1, 1, 1) = � + 2� + 3�
�
∴ �. �. = (� + 2� + 3� ) ∙ � = (� + 2� + 3� ) ∙
�
�(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���) �(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���) �(�3 +�3 +�3 −3���)
= �+ �+ �
�� �� ��
= (3�2 − 3��)� + (3y2 − 3xz)� + (3z2 − 3xy)�
It is a vector field where the work done by the field on an object moving
along a closed path is independent of the path taken.
A conservative field represents a force field where the work done by the
force on an object depends only on the initial and final positions of the
object, not on the path taken. For example, in a gravitational field, the
work done in moving an object from one point to another depends only
on the initial and final heights, not on the path taken.
Note: All conservative fields are irrotational, but all irrotational fields
need not be conservative.
Solve :
1) Given the vector field � = (�, − �), determine if it is irrotational or not.
3) For the vector field � = (��, ��, ��), show that it is irrotational.
∴ � = ������ + ���� + �2 � + �
Examples for Practice:
Ex. 2. Show that � = (���� ����)� + (���� ����)� − (��� ����)�
is irrotational. Find � if � = ��.
Ans: � = ��� ���� + �
Ex. 3. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (�2 ���� + �2 )� + (2�����)� + (2��)�.
Ans: � = �2 ���� + ��2 + �
Ex. 4. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (2��3 + 6�)� + (6� − 2��)� + (3�2 �2 − �2 )�.
Ans: � = �2 �3 + 6�� − �2 � + �
Ex. 5. If � = (2���2 )� + (�2 �2 + ����(��))� + (2�2 �� + ����(��)�
Show that � is irrotational. Find � if � = ��.
Ans: � = �2 ��2 + sin(��) + �
Ex. 6. Show that the vector field is irrotational. Also find its scalar
potential, � = (6�� + �3 )� + (3�2 − �)� + (3��2 − �)�.
Ans: � = 3�2 � + ��3 − �� + �
VECTOR IDENTITIES
Given scalar function ∅ and vector functions �, �. Following
results involving operation of ∇ are useful.
1) ∇.(∅ �) = ∇∅. � + ∅(�. �) OR Div (∅ � ) = �. Grad ∅ + ∅ Div �
Proof: Let, � = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
∅� = ∅ �1 � + ∅�2 � + ∅�3 �
� � �
L. H. S. = ∇.(∅ �) = (∅ �1 ) + (∅ �2 ) + (∅ �3 )
�� �� ��
��1 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��3 �∅
=∅ + �1 +∅ +�2 +∅ + �3
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��1 ��2 ��3 �∅ �∅ �∅
=∅ + + +�1 +�2 + �3
�� �� �� �� �� ��
�∅ �∅ �∅
= ∅(�. �) +(�1 � + �2 � + �3 �). � +� +�
�� �� ��
= ∅(�. �) + �. ∇∅ = R. H. S.
Alternatively, the result can be proved by symbolic procedure.
� being vector differential operator, it behaves like an operator
�
D = just as
��
� (��) = ��� + ��� = �� (��) + �� (��)
We can write ∇.(∅ �) = ∇∅ . (∅ �) + ∇� . (∅�)
(the suffix of ∇ is to be treated as constant in each expression.)
= ∅ (∇∅ . �) +� . ∇� ∅.
Omitting the suffix now = ∅ (∇. �) +� . ∇∅
Symbolic procedure is not rigorous way of presenting the proof
of vector identities, but is quite useful in solution of problems.
2) ∇×(∅ �) = ∇∅×� + ∅(� × �)
OR curl (∅ � ) = Grad ∅ × �+ ∅ curl �
Proof: As before, let, � = �1 � + �2 � + �3 �
� � �
� � �
L. H. S. = ∇×(∅ �) = �� �� ��
∅�1 ∅�2 ∅�3
� � � �
=� (∅�3 ) − (∅�2 ) + � (∅�1 ) − (∅�3 )
�� �� �� ��
� �
+� (∅�2 ) − (∅�1 )
�� ��
��3 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��1 �∅
=� ∅ + �3 +− ∅ − �2 + � ∅ + �1 −
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��3 �∅ ��2 �∅ ��1 �∅
∅ − �3 +� ∅ + �2 +− ∅ − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��
��3 ��2 ��1 ��3 ��2 ��1
=∅ � − + � − +� −
�� �� �� �� �� ��
�∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅
+� �3 − �2 + � �1 − �3 + � �2 − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��
= ∅(� × �) + ∇∅×�
� � �
�∅ �∅ �∅
For ∇∅×� =
�� �� ��
�1 �2 �3
�∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅ �∅
= � �3 − �2 + � �1 − �3 + � �2 − �1
�� �� �� �� �� ��
v d∅ = � ∅ . d� v D.D. of ∅ = � ∅ . �
v div � = � � =
��1
+
��2
+
��3 v � � = 0 = � is solenoidal
�� �� ��
v � (�. �) = � v � (�. �) = 0
v rot (�) = curl (�) = �× � = v � � = 0 = � is solenoidal
� � �
� � �
�� �� ��
�1 �2 �3
v �.�=0,�× �=0 v �.�=3,�× �=0
v � . (∅ �) =∅(� �) + ∇∅. � v ∇×(∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� + ∅(� × �)
v � . ( � × �) = � . ( � × � ) − � . v � × ( � × �) = � ( � . � ) −
(� �) (� . �) � +
( � . � )� − � . ( � × � )
v � ( � . �) = � × ( � × � ) + (� . �) � + � × ( � × � ) + ( � . � )�
v � . (�� �) = (n + 3) �� v � × (�� �) = 0
∇ . ∇∅ = (∇ . ∇)∅ = ∇2 ∅ v∇ =2 �2
+
�2
+
�2
�2∅ �2∅ �2∅ ��2 ��2 ��2
∇2 ∅ = 2 + 2 + 2 2
∇ ∅ = 0 is Laplace equation
�� �� ��
v∇ × ∇∅ = 0; � (� × �) = 0 v� × (� × �) = curl curl � ; � (�. �) -
∇2 �
v� (� × �) = � × (� × �) + vGroup Operator
∇2 � ≡ a. � = �1
�
+ �2
�
+ �3
�
�� �� ��
PROBLEMS ON VECTOR
IDENTITIES
Example 1) Given � = xyz � + (��� � − �� �) � + ��� � , � = �� � +
(��� ) � + (1 + 2z) � , ∅ xy + yz + ��
Find (i) � . � (ii) � × � (iii) � (∅ �) (iv) � × (∅ �) at (1, 0, -1).
Solution:
� � 2 2 �
(i) � . � = ( xyz ) + (2� � − � �)+ (��3 )
�� �� ��
= yz – 2xy + 3x�2
[� . �](1, 0, −1) = 3
� � �
� � �
(ii) [� × �] = �� �� ��
= - 2y �
2
� 2�� (1 + 2�)
[� × �](1, 0, −1) = 0
(iii) � (∅ �) = ∇∅. � + ∅(� �)
�∅ �∅ �∅
∇∅ = � + � + � = y � + (� + �)� + (� + 2�)�
�� �� ��
∇∅ (1, 0, −1) = 0 + 0 – 2� = – 2�
∇∅ (1, 0, −1) =1,�. �=3
∴ � (∅ �) = – 2� (– 2�– �) + 1(3) = 2 + 3 = 5
(iv) � × (∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� + ∅(� × �)
= ∇ ∅×� as � × � = 0
� (1, 0, −1) = �– � , ∇∅ = – 2�
� × (∅ �) = ∇ ∅×� = – 2� × (�– �) = -2�
Example 2) For scalar functions ∅ and φ, Show that
i. ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ - φ ∇ ∅ ) = ∅ ∇2 φ - φ ∇2 ∅
ii. ∇2 (∅ φ) = ∅ ∇2 φ + 2 ∇∅ . ∇φ + φ ∇2 ∅
Solution: (i) ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ) = ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ (∇. (∇φ )) = ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ
∇ . (φ ∇ ∅) = ∇φ ∇∅ + φ ∇2 ∅
∇.(∅ ∇ φ - φ ∇ ∅) = ∇.(∅ ∇ φ) - ∇.(φ ∇ ∅)
= ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ - ∇φ ∇∅ - φ ∇2 ∅
= ∅ ∇2 φ - φ ∇2 ∅
(ii) ∇2 (∅ φ) = ∇ . (∅ ∇ φ + φ ∇ ∅ )
= ∇∅ . ∇φ + ∅ ∇2 φ + ∇φ ∇∅ + φ
∇2 ∅
= ∅ ∇2 φ + 2 ∇φ ∇∅ + φ ∇2 ∅
Example 3) With usual notations, show that
i. ∇ ×[� × (� × �)] = � × �
ii. ∇ ×[(� × �) × (� × �)] = � × (� × �) + � × (� × �)
Solution: (i) [� × (� × �)] = (� . �)� - (� . �)�
∇ ×[� × (� × �)] = ∇ × [(� . �)� - (� . �)�]
= ∇ × [(� . �)�] - ∇ × [(� . �)�]
= ∇ × (� . �) × � + (� . �)� × � - ∇ × (� . �) × � - (� .
�)(� × �)
=�� [� , � being constant vectors]
∇×� = 0 , ∇ . (� . �) = 0 and ∇ × � = 0
(ii) L. H. S. = ∇ ×[(� × �) × (� × �)]
Let � = (� × �)
[(� × �) × (� × �)] = � . (� × �) =( � × �) . �
[ by interchanging dot and cross product ]
= [( � × �)× � ] . � = - { �× (� × �)} . �
= {( �. �). � − (�. �) �} . �
= - (�. �) (�. �) + (�. �) (�. �)
L. H. S. = ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �) - (�. �) (�. �) ]
= ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �)] - ∇ × [(�. �) (�. �) ]
= (�. �) � ( �2 ) - (�. �) �(�. �) - (�. �)� (�. �) - (�. �)� (�. �)
Now, � ( �2 ) = 2�, �(�. �) = 0, �(�. �) = �, � (�. �) = �
L. H. S. = 2(�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � … [ �(�. �) = 0]
R. H. S. = � × (� × �) + � × (� × �)
= (�. �) � - (�. �) � + (�. �) � - (�. �) �
= 2(�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) � - (�. �) �
L. H. S. = R. H. S. which proves the result.