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Logic & Critical Thinking

Chapter 3 : Logic & Language
Lesson 1 : Philosophy of Language

Lesson 2 : Logic and Meaning

Lesson 3 : Meaning, Types, and Purposes of Definitions

Lesson 4 : Techniquesof Definition

Lesson 5 : Criteria for Lexical Definitions

 Logic and Language: The Connection
- Logic depends entirely on language.

Even correct reasoningfails if it is expressed in unclear, vague, or emotional language.

- Arguments are made of statements

- Statements are made of sentences

- Sentences are made ofwords

Therefore, clarity of language = quality of logic

=> Many logical errors arise not from bad reasoning, but from careless use of language.
Hence, logic studies meaning, terms, and definitions.
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Lesson 1: Philosophy of Language: Overview

What is Philosophy of Language?

Philosophy of Language is the rational study of:

The origin of language

The nature of meaning

The use and understanding (cognition) of language

The relation between language, logic, and reality

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Key questions include:

What is meaning?

How does language refer to the world?

Is language learned or innate?

How do sentence meanings arise from words?

Semioticsstudies signs and symbols and how meaning is constructed.

Semantic holism: the view that a word orsentence’s meaning depends on its relation to
the whole languagesystem, not in isolation.
 Philosophy of Language vs Linguistics

- Linguistics studies the structure and grammar of specific languages

- Philosophy of Language studies meaning and reference in general

Noam Chomsky:

Proposed Universal Grammar

Believed humans are born with innate linguistic capacity

Distinguished:

I-language (internal mental grammar)

E-language (external language use)

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 Historical Development
Plato: Names are determined by nature

Aristotle: Meaning comes from abstracting similarities (Moderate Realism)

Stoics: Developed grammar and the concept of proposition

Medieval Scholastics: Studied ambiguity, vagueness, and logical language

Modern Philosophy: Language became central (especially Analytic Philosophy)

Philosophical Approaches to Meaning

Typesof Meaning : 1. Conceptual Meaning – dictionary definition

2. Associative Meaning – emotional, social, or contextual meaning

 Major Theories of Meaning
Idea Theory – meaning is mental (Locke, Hume)

Truth-ConditionalTheory – meaning = conditions of truth (Frege)

Use Theory – meaning depends on use (Wittgenstein)

Reference Theory – meaning is connection to the world (Kripke)

VerificationTheory – meaning depends on verification

Pragmatist Theory – meaning depends on consequences

 Lesson 2: Logic and Meaning
Functions of Language
- Language performs many functions, but logic focuses on two:

A. Cognitive Meaning B. Emotive Meaning

Conveys facts and information Expresses or evokes feelings

Can be true or false Influences attitudes

Essential for logical evaluation Often hides valuejudgments

=> Most statements contain both cognitive and emotive meaning.

 Emotive Language in Arguments
Emotive language:

Hides value claims

Avoids giving evidence

Manipulates emotions

Weakens logical evaluation

Logical task: Ø=ÜI

Separate value claims from emotive wording

Ø=ÜI
Restate arguments in neutral language
 Defects of Cognitive Meaning
Vagueness

- A term is vague when it has borderline cases.

Meaning is unclear or imprecise

Examples: rich, poor, fresh, normal, excessive

=> Vagueness is problematic only when precision is required.

Ambiguity

- A term is ambiguous when it has two or more distinct meanings.

Examples: bank, light, proper, guilty Vagueness !’ blurry meaning

Ambiguity !’ multiple clear meanings

 Forms of Disputes in Logic

VerbalDisputes Factual Disputes

Caused by vagueness or ambiguity Disagreement about facts

Not real disagreement Resolved by evidence

Resolved by clarifying language First task in a dispute:

Ø=ÜI
Decide whether it is verbal orfactual

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 Terms:Intension and Extension
What is a Term?
=> A term is any word or group of words that can serve as the subject of a statement.

Typesof Terms

Proper names:Abebe

Common names: animal

Descriptive phrases: students who study hard

Use vs Mention

Use: word refers to something

Mention: word refers to itself (in quotes)

=> Only used words count as terms. @StarFreshs

 Intension and Extension
Intension (Connotation) = Attributes or qualities a term implies

Extension (Denotation) = Actual members of the class

Example: Cat Empty Extension

Intension: furry,four-legged, meows - Some terms denote no real objects:

Unicorn
Extension: all cats that exist
Current king ofFrance
Ø=ÜI
Intension determines extension
They still have intension, but empty extension.

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 Proper Names and Meaning
Proper names: Do have intension

Either as: - Bundles of descriptions

- Causal chains of naming

Thus, all terms have intension.

Ordering Termsby Intension and Extension

Increasing Intension !’ more specific Increasing Extension !’ larger class

Rule : Increasing intension = decreasing extension

Example: animal !’ mammal !’ feline !’ tiger

Exceptions: Termswith empty or equal extension @StarFreshs

 LOGIC AND DEFINITION
LESSON 3: Meaning, Types,and Purposes of Definitions
Meaning of Definition
Logic deals with arguments.
Arguments are made of statements.
Statements are made of sentences.
Sentences are made of words.
Words have meanings.

Therefore, clarity of meaning is essential for logical reasoning.

- Meanings of words are explained through definitions.

=> A definition is a group of words that explains the meaning of another word or phrase.
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Nature of Definition
- Every definition has two parts:

• Definiendum – the word or phrase being defined

• Definiens – the word or phrase that explains the meaning

Example:

“Tiger means a large, striped, ferocious feline.”

• Tiger !’ definiendum
• Large, striped, ferocious feline !’ definiens

=> The definiens is not the meaning itself; it is a symbol that has the same meaning
as the definiendum.
 Purpose of Definitions
Definitions are used to:
• Clarify meaning
• Remove ambiguity
• Reduce verbal disputes
• Improve communication
• Strengthen logical arguments

Typesof Definitions
- Definitions are classified according to the purpose they serve.

There are five (5) main types.

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 1) Stipulative Definition
A stipulative definition assigns a meaning to a word for the first time.

It may:
• Introduce a new word, or
• Give a new meaning to an existing word

Purpose:
• Tosimplify communication
• Toname new objects, ideas, or phenomena

Examples: Characteristics: - Neither true nor false

- Does not state facts
• Tigon – offspring of a male tiger and a female lion - Can be more or less useful
• Liger – offspring of a male lion and a female tiger
- Misuse occurs when a word is used with a private
- Code words used in military operations meaning without informing others.
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2) Lexical Definition
- A lexical definition reports the actual meaning of a word as used in a language.

Dictionary definitions are lexical definitions.

Purpose:

• Todescribe common usage

• Toreduce ambiguity
• Toexplain multiple meanings

=> Lexical definitions can be true or false, depending on accuracy.

They help avoid confusion caused by words with more than one meaning, such as bank,
light, or mad.
 3) Précising Definition
- A précising definition reduces vagueness by making a term more exact.

Purpose:
• Toset clear boundaries
• Toenable precise decisions
• Used in law, science, and medicine

Examples:

• Defining poor by income level

• Defining death as cessation of brain function

Précising definitions are not arbitrary.

They must be justified by context and purpose.

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 4) Theoretical Definition
- A theoretical definition explains a term using a theory.

Purpose:
• Toincrease understanding
• Tosupport explanation and prediction
• Toguide scientific inquiry

Examples :

• Heat defined as molecular motion

• Good defined as greatest happiness

=> Theoretical definitions are neither true nor false.

They are evaluated by their usefulness and explanatory power.

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 5) Persuasive Definition
- A persuasive definition influences attitudes by using emotive language.

Purpose:

• Topraise or condemn
• Toshape opinions
• Common in politics and media

Examples:

• Abortion described as murder

• Taxationdescribed as public contribution

=> Persuasive definitions are judged by effectiveness, not truth.

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Key Idea
• Definitions clarify meaning

• Clear definitions prevent confusion

• Logical reasoning depends on how terms are defined

• Misused definitions distort arguments

Clear thinking begins with clear definitions.

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 LESSON 4: TECHNIQUES OF DEFINITION
Extensional (Denotative) Definitional Techniques
- An extensional definition assigns meaning to a term by indicating the members of the class
that the term denotes.

There are three extensional techniques:

1. Demonstrative (Ostensive) definition

2. Enumerative definition

3. Definition by subclass

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 1. Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definition
- A demonstrative definition assigns meaning by pointing to objects.

- It is the most primitive form of definition.

Characteristics:

• Requires understanding of pointing

• May be partial or complete

• The definiens includes a gesture

Examples:
• “Chair” means this and this and this (pointing to chairs)
• “Washington Monument” means that (pointing to it) @StarFreshs
Uses:

• Teachinglanguage to foreigners

• When verbal explanation is impossible

Limitations:

• Objects must be present

• Cannot define absent or abstract things

• Gestures function as “words” in the definition

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2. Enumerative Definition
An enumerative definition assigns meaning by listing individual members of a class.

It may be:
• Partial – lists some members
• Complete – lists all members

Example:

• “Actor” means a person such as Abebe Balicha, Samson Taddesse, or MahderAssefa.

=> Complete enumerations are clearer, but few classes can be fully enumerated.

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3) Definition by Subclass

A definition by subclass assigns meaning by naming subclasses of the class.

It may be:
• Partial
• Complete
Examples:
• “Tree” means oak, pine, elm, maple, etc. (partial)
• “Fictional work” means poem, play,novel, or short story (complete)
Limitation:
• Few terms have a small number of subclasses
• Complete subclass definitions are often difficult

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Use and Limits of Extensional Definitions

Extensional definitions are mainly used to produce:

• Lexical definitions
• Stipulative definitions
They are commonly used in dictionaries through:
• Enumeration
• Subclass listing
• Pictures (demonstrative)
They cannot properly serve précising definitions because:
• Vagueness belongs to intensional meaning
• Intension determines extension, not the reverse

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Defects of Extensional Definitions

Extensional definitions cannot guarantee intensional meaning.

Examples:
• Defining “chair” by wooden chairs may suggest “made of wood”
• Defining “actor” by famous people may suggest “fame”
• Defining “tree” by subclasses may suggest “firmly planted object”
Conclusion:
Extensions may suggest meanings, but they cannot determine them.

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Intensional (Connotative) Definitional Techniques
An intensional definition assigns meaning by stating the qualities or attributes a
term connotes.
There are four intensional techniques:

1. Synonymous definition
2. Etymological definition
3. Operational definition
4. Definition by genus and difference

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1. Synonymous Definition
A synonymous definition assigns meaning using a single word with the same
meaning.
Examples:
• “Physician” means doctor
• “Observe” means see
Advantages:
• Highly concise
Limitation:
• Many words have no exact synonym
• Subtle meanings may be lost

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2. Etymological Definition
An etymological definition explains meaning by tracing a word’s origin.
Example:
• “License” comes from Latin licere (to permit)
Importance:
• Reveals root meaning
• Clarifies proper usage
• Helps understand related words
Examples:
• “Principle” from principium (source)
• “Polygon” !’ understanding related terms
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3. Operational Definition
An operational definition assigns meaning by specifying a procedure or test.
Examples:
• One substance is harder than another if it scratches it
• A solution is acidic if it turns litmus paper red
Requirements:
• Must prescribe a specific operation
Limitations:
• Often incomplete
• Applies mainly to science
• Cannot define abstract concepts like love or freedom

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4. Definition by Genus and Difference
This technique defines a term by:
• Identifying a genus (general class)
• Adding a specific difference
Logical meanings:
• Genus – larger class
• Species – smaller subclass
• Specific difference – distinguishing attribute
Example:
• Ice = frozen water
• Daughter = female offspring
• Husband = married man
This is the most powerful and widely applicable definitional technique.
Effectiveness of Genus–Difference Method

• Can construct all five types of definitions

• Most lexical definitions use it
• Often combined with etymology

Limitations of other techniques:

• Synonymous !’ lexical only
• Operational !’ partial meaning
• Extensional !’ cannot ensure intension

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Key Note
This account is not exhaustive.
Although the discussion focuses on terms, many techniques also apply to:
• Words
• Symbols
• General language use
Clear definitions are the foundation of clear thinking.

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LESSON 5: CRITERIA FOR LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
Lexical Definitions and Their Rules

- Lexical definitions report the ordinary meaning of words as they are actually used.
Toensure clarity,accuracy,and usefulness, lexical definitions must satisfy eight rules.

Rule 1: A Lexical Definition Should Conform to Proper Grammar

A definition must be grammatically correct.
Incorrect definitions:
• Vacation is when you don’t have to go to work or school.
• Furious means if you’re angry at someone.
Correct definitions:
• “Vacation” means a period during which activity is suspended from work or school.
• “Furious” means a condition of being angry.
Note:
• The definiendum should technically appear in quotation marks or italics, though this rule is not always followed.

Rule 2: A Lexical Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning

- A definition must express the essential attributes of the word.

Example ofa poor definition:

• “Human” means a featherless biped.

Problem:
• It ignores the essential traits of humans, such as reason and language.
Improved definition:
• “Human” means an animal capable of reasoning and sophisticated language use.

Important points:
• Operational definitions usually convey only partial meaning
• Extensional definitions can suggest meaning but cannot determine it
• A good lexical definition should rely primarily on intensional techniques, especially genus and difference
Rule 3: A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither TooBroad nor TooNarrow
• Toobroad !’ includes things that should not belong
• Toonarrow !’ excludes things that should belong

Examples:

• Defining “bird” as a warm-blooded animal with wings !’ too broad (includes bats)
• Defining “bird” as a feathered animal that can fly !’ too narrow (excludes ostriches)

Common problem areas:

• Synonymous definitions
• Definitions by genus and difference

=> Accuracy depends on selecting the right genus and exact difference.

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Rule 4: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity
- A definition is circular if it directly or indirectly refers back to itself.

Circular pairs:

• “Science” means what scientists do.

• “Scientist” means one who practices science.

Intrinsic circularity:

• “Quiet” means quietude.

• “Silence” means the state of being silent.

Operational circularity:

• “Time” means what is measured by a clock.

Problem:
• One must already understand the term to understand the definition.
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Rule 5: A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative
- Affirmative definitions are preferred when possible.

Examples:
• “Concord” means harmony.(affirmative)
• “Concord” means absence of discord. (negative)

However, negative definitions are acceptable when the concept itself is negative.

Examples:
• “Bald” means lacking hair.
• “Darkness” means absence of light.

Rule 6: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure, Vague, or Ambiguous

Language
Figurative Language
- Uses imagery instead of meaning.
• “Camel” means a ship of the desert. @StarFreshs
Obscure Language
- Uses unnecessary technical terms.
• “Bunny” defined in scientific taxonomy (poor)
• “Bunny” means rabbit (better)

Vague Language
- Lacks precision.
• “Democracy” means a government where people are in control.
Problem:
• Who are the people?
• How is control exercised?

Ambiguous Language
- Allows multiple interpretations.
• “Triangle”means a figure whose angles equal 180.
Ambiguity:
• Each angle or total angles?
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Rule 7: A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology

- Affective terminology appeals to emotions, not meaning.

Includes: • Sarcasm
• Ridicule
• Praise or blame

Example: Defining communism using insulting or praising language.

=> Lexical definitions must remain neutral and objective.

Rule 8: A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Relevant Context

- Some words have different meanings in different contexts.

Example: “Strike”
The context may be:
• In baseball !’ missed swing
• In bowling !’ knocking down all pins
• In fishing !’ fish pulling the line • Explicitly stated, or Clearly implied by wording
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Final Summary
Lexical definitions must be:

• Grammatically correct
• Essential in meaning
• Properly limited
• Non-circular
• Preferably affirmative
• Clear and precise
• Emotionally neutral
• Context-sensitive

=> A good lexical definition is the foundation of clear thinking and effective
communication.