SOUNDINGS AND

CONVECTIVE
PARAMETERS
MSC 243 Lecture #5
 Vertical Structure in the
Atmosphere
 Recall the general balance vertically
in the atmosphere is hydrostatic
balance:

∂p = -ρg
∂z

 Where p is pressure, z is height, g is

gravity (9.8 meters per second
 Temperature Change with
Height
 From manipulation of the hydrostatic
equation, potential temperature is:

Θ = T (p0/p) (R/Cp)

 Where T is the temperature at the

height of pressure level p, R is a
constant for dry air (287.05 J/kg K)
and Cp is the specific heat of dry air
at constant pressure (1004.64 J/kg
 Temperature Change with
Height
 Assuming that potential temperature
is conserved, the equation for the
rate of change of temperature with
height is:
∂T = -g/Cp
∂z
= -9.8 (m/s2) / 1004.64 (J/kg deg
C)
= -9.75 deg C / km
 Parcel Motion
 As a parcel moves up and down, so
long as it is not saturated, it’s
temperature will change at the dry
adiabatic lapse rate.
 As a parcel moves up and down, so
long as it is not saturated, it will
conserve it’s ‘mixing ratio’, the ratio
of water molecules to air molecutes.
 Parcel Motion
 If a parcel becomes saturated,
continued cooling will result in water
vapor condensing into rain or snow.
 The latent heat released by
condensing off-sets the cooling from
expansion, and the parcel will rise at
the moist-adiabatic lapse rate.
 This rate is generally around -6.6
degrees C per kilometer, not as high
as the dry adiabatic rate.
 Upper Air Soundings
 Radiosonde launches occur twice
per day at approximately 750 upper
air stations worldwide.
 Approximately 120 launch sites in the
United States.
 Launch times are 00Z (US evening)
and 12Z (US morning).
 Sounding Sites

http://www.weather.unisys.com/upper_air/skew/index.html
 The Radiosonde
A radiosonde is a lightweight box
containing small elements which
react to changes in atmospheric
pressure, temperature, & humidity.
 Radiosonde is carried aloft by a large helium-filled
balloon.
 As balloon travels upward elements react to
atmospheric changes.
 These changes are transmitted back to a ground
receiving station where they are automatically
recorded.
 Winds aloft data is obtained by tracking the
radiosonde with ground based radar.
 The Radiosonde
 Balloon pack rises at approximately 1,000
feet per minute, taking about 1 hour and
40 minutes to reach 100,000 feet.
 As balloon rises it travels with the wind.
 All observed data is plotted over the launch
station even though the radiosonde may have
traveled several miles downwind during its
ascent.
 Balloon burst around 120,000 feet, then
radiosonde packet descends back to earth
by a parachute.
 Radiosondes that are recovered can be
used again.
Sounding Data
 Skew-T Chart
Skew-T chart is a graphical display of an upper air
sounding for a particular ground station.
 Isobars - straight horizontal solid lines.
 Isotherms - straight diagonal solid lines sloping
from the lower left to upper right. These lines
are labeled in °C
 The concept of Skew-T means that the temperature is
not plotted vertically but angles off to the right at a
45° angle.
 Dry adiabats - slightly curved solid lines sloping
from the lower right to upper left.
 These lines indicate the rate of temperature change in
a parcel of dry air rising or descending adiabatically;
with no loss or gain of heat by the parcel.
 A Skew-T Example
Isobars are lines
of constant
pressure.
ISOBAR
Isotherms are
lines of constant
temperature.
Dry adiabats are
M

lines of constant
ER
TH

DR
potential
O

Y-
IS

A DI
AB temperature.
AT
 Skew-T Data
 Temperature
 Temperature at a specified pressure.
 At pressure find T curve
 Read value of isotherm
 Label in °C
 Potential Temperature
 Temperature a parcel of air would have it brought
adiabatically to the reference pressure
 At pressure find T curve
 Follow dry-adiabat down to 1000mb
 Read value of isotherm
 Dew Point Temperature
 Temperature at which a parcel of air will become
saturated if it is cooled.
 At pressure find Td curve
 Read value of isotherm
 Label in °C
 Skew-T Data
 Mixing Ratio
 The ratio of the mass of water vapor (in grams)
to the mass of dry air (in kilograms).
 At pressure find Td
 Read value of saturation mixing ratio line
 Label in g/kg
 Saturation Mixing Ratio
 The water vapor content of the air if it were
saturated.
 At pressure find T
 Read value of saturation mixing ratio line
 Label in g/kg
A Skew-T Example
Data from a
Skew-T
available at
each level are:
- Temperature
- Potential
Temperature
- Dew Point
- Mixing Ratio
- Saturation
Mixing Ratio
 Skew-T Chart
 Saturation adiabats - slightly curved dashed
lines sloping from the lower right to upper left.
 These lines represent paths that saturated air follows
and represents the rate of temperature change in a
parcel of saturated air rising pseudo-adiabatically.
 Pseudo-adiabatically means that all the condensed water
vapor is assumed to fall out immediately as the parcel
rises.
 Condensation at all temperatures is assumed to be liquid
water and, therefore, no latent heat of fusion is included.
 Saturation mixing-ratio lines - slightly
curved dashed lines sloping from the lower left
to upper right.
 These lines are labeled in grams per kilogram; grams
of water vapor per 1000 grams of dry air.
 The amount of water vapor in the atmosphere
depends on the temperature.
A Skew-T Example
Saturation (Moist)
adiabats are lines
of constant
vertical
temperature
change for
saturated air.
Mixing-ratio lines
MOIST-ADIABAT
IO

are lines of
AT
-R

constant water
G
IN

content.
IX
M
 Skew-T Data
 Relative Humidity
 The ratio (in %) of the amount of water vapor
in a given volume to the amount that the
volume would hold if saturated.
 At pressure find Td (w)
 Note value of saturation mixing ratio line
 At pressure find T (ws)
 Note value of saturation mixing ratio line
 RH = w/ws x 100
 Potential Temperature "Theta"
 The temperature that a sample of air would
have if it were brought dry adiabatically to
1000 mb.
 At pressure find T
 Follow dry adiabat to 1000 mb
 Read isotherm
 Label in °C (value is usually labeled in Kelvin; 0°C =
 Skew-T Data
 Lifting Condensation Level (LCL)
 The height at which a parcel of air would
become saturated if lifted dry adiabatically
(point at which saturation would occur if parcel
is lifted mechanically: orographic, frontal, etc.)
 At pressure find Td
 Draw a line up parallel to mixing ratio line
 At pressure fine T
 Draw a line up parallel to dry adiabat
 The intersection of lines from step b and d is the LCL
 Read pressure and label in mbs
 Skew-T Data
 Equilibrium Level (EL)
 The height at which a parcel of air would
become unsaturated if lifted moist
adiabatically from the At pressure find
Td
 From the point where the LCL was found
(the intersection of the constant mixing ratio
line and constant potential temperature line)
follow a moist adiabat up until crossing the
temperature line again
 That level is the equilibrium level, the level
at which a parcel of air no longer
 Skew-T Data
 Convective Condensation Level
(CCL)
 The height to which a parcel of air will
rise if heated from below adiabatically
until saturation occurs (potential cloud
bases of cumuliform clouds if caused by
surface heating).
 At surface find Td
 Draw a line up parallel to mixing ratio line
until it intersects the environmental
temperature curve
 Level of this intersection is CCL
 Skew-T Data
 Convective Temperature (Tc)
 The temperature the surface must reach
for convection to begin.
 Find convective condensation level (CCL).
 Extend a line down dry adiabatically to
surface.
 Read temperature.

 Label in °C

 Freezing Level
 Pressure level at which the
environmental temperature is equal to
or less that 0°C.
A Skew-T Example
Data from a
Skew-T
available at
each level are:
- Freezing Level
- Lifted
Condensation
Level
- Equilibrium
Level
- Convective
Temperature
 How much lift to expect
 As they are lifted, parcels conserve
potential temperature and mixing
ratio until they are saturated, then
continued ascent follows a moist
adiabat, with excess moisture
precipitating out.
 What are the typical values of
vertical velocity that can occur with a
front, or convection?
How much lift to expect
Values in
purple are
about -20
microbars per
second.
-20 μb / s =
72000 μb / hr =
72 mb/hr

Values in yellow
are about -5
microbars per
second.
-5 μb / s =
18000 μb / hr =
18 mb/hr
How much lift to expect
Where there
was strong
vertical
velocity, there
is heavy
rainfall.
Moisture
advection, plus
lift, results in
heavy rainfall
from synoptic
scale forcing.
Smaller scale
precipitation
can be
triggered by
Stability and Convection
∂w = g Tp - T
∂t T

Where Tp is the temperature of a

parcel of air, and T is the
temperature from the sounding.
If a parcel is lifted (via a front, a
mountain, upper level divergence)
and it’s temperature is greater than
 Stability Indicies
 Several measures have been devised
to quantify how likely it is that a
parcel will be able to rise if forced,
how high the parcel will rise.
 Most of these indices are related to
the concept of stability and lapse
rates.
 Total Totals Index
 The Total Totals Index consists of two
components, the Vertical Totals (VT) and the
Cross Totals (CT). The VT represents static
stability or the lapse rate between 850 and 500
mb. The CT includes the 850 mb dewpoint.

 TT = VT + CT
 VT = T(850 mb) - T(500 mb)
 CT = Td(850 mb) - T(500 mb)

 TT = T(850 mb) + Td(850 mb) - 2[T(500

mb)]      
 temperatures in degrees C.
 TT = 45 to 50:  Thunderstorms possible.
 TT = 50 to 55: Thunderstorms more likely, possibly
severe.

 K - Index
 The K index is a measure of thunderstorm
potential based on the vertical temperature lapse
rate, and the amount and vertical extent of low-
level moisture in the atmosphere.

 K = T(850 mb) + Td(850 mb) - T(500 mb) -

DD(700 mb)

in degrees C, where T represents temperature, Td

represents dewpoint temperature, and DD
represents dewpoint depression (the difference
between the dewpoint temperature and the
actual temperature) at the indicated level.
 K below 30: Thunderstorms with heavy rain or severe
weather possible.

 Lifted Index
 The LI is a commonly utilized measure of stability
which measures the difference between a lifted
parcel's temperature at 500 mb and the
environmental temperature at 500 mb. It incorporates
moisture and lapse rate (static stability) into one
number, which is less vulnerable to observations at
individual pressure levels.
 LI  = T(500 mb envir) - T(500 mb parcel)
in degrees C, where T (500 mb envir) represents the
500 mb environmental temperature and T (500 mb
parcel) is the rising air parcel's 500 mb temperature.
 LI over 0: Stable but weak convection possible for LI =
1-3 if strong lifting is present. 
 LI = 0 to -3: Marginally unstable. 
 LI = -3 to -6: Moderately unstable. 
 LI = -6 to -9: Very unstable. 
 LI below -9:  Extremely unstable.
 C.A.P.E.
 CAPE represents the amount of buoyant energy
available to accelerate a parcel vertically, or the
amount of work a parcel does on the environment.
CAPE is the positive area on a sounding between the
parcel's assumed ascent along a moist adiabat and
the environmental temperature curve from the level
of free convection (LFC) to the equilibrium level (EL).

               EL
∫
CAPE = g  [(Tparcel - Tenvir) / Tenvir] dz (in
J/kg)                 
LFC

- CAPE below 0: Stable. 
- CAPE = 0 to 1000: Marginally unstable.
- CAPE = 1000 to 2500: Moderately unstable. 
- CAPE = 2500 to 3500:  Very unstable. 
- CAPE above 3500:  Extremely unstable.
 Vertical Velocity from
C.A.P.E.
 Using CAPE, the maximum updraft speed
in a thunderstorm (w-max) at the
equilibrium level can be calculated.
 In general, w-max = square root of
2*(CAPE). For example, a range of CAPE
of 1500-2500 J/kg gives a w-max range of
about 50-70 m/s (100-140 kts).
 Due to water loading, mixing,
entrainment, and evaporative cooling, the
actual w-max is approximately one-half
that calculated above.
A Skew-T Example
Convective
EQ LEV Parameters
often
accompany
sounding plots
This sounding
indicates deep
convection is
quite likely
LI

LFC
Surface Chart with Radar
 Atmospheric Stability
 Stability is often measure in terms of
potential temperature.
 If Θ increases with height, this is called a
stable regime.
 If Θ is constant with height, this is called
a neutral regime.
 If Θ decreases with height, this is called
an unstable regime.
 Inversions
Pressure height at which the atmospheric
temperature is either constant or
increasing with height.
 Types of inversions:
 Radiation Inversion
 A thermally produced surface based inversion formed
by the rapid cooling of air in contact with the surface
as compared to the upper layers.
 Favorable conditions include:
 Long nights or periods of low solar radiation.
 Clear skies.
 Dry air, as moist air traps infrared energy.
 Little winds.
 Inversions
 Subsidence Inversion
 A mechanically produced inversion formed by
adiabatic heating of a layer of sinking air.
 Favorable conditions include:
 Strong anticyclones or stable air masses that force air
to sink.
 Frontal Inversion
 The transition layer between a cold air mass
and the warmer air mass above it.
 Favorable conditions include:
 Warm air overriding cold air.
A Skew-T Example
Inversions are
heights in the
atmosphere
where
temperatures
are constant
or increase
with height.
Types:
- Radiation
- Subsidence
- Turbulence
- Frontal
Where is the inversion?
Rising parcels
which
encounter an
inversion are
cooler than
their
environment,
and stop rising
Up-slope and Down-slope
Flow
 Down-Slope Flow
 Air flowing down slope is often
warmer as a result of surface air,
rather than ‘free atmosphere air’
being mixed down to the surface
Noon Ground Noon 850 mb
Temp = 20C Temp = 10C
<- 5000
feet ->

Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Down-Slope Flow
 If 850mb air is mixed down to the
surface, the temperature will be 10C
+ 15C = 25C = 77F
Noon Ground Noon 850 mb
Temp = 20C Temp = 10C
<- 5000
feet ->

Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Down-Slope Flow
 If air at the ground (heated because
of sunshine warming the ground)
decends to our site, the temperature
will be 20C + 15C = 35C = 95F
Noon Ground Noon 850 mb
Temp = 20C Temp = 10C
20 m
i
hour les per
<- 5000
feet ->

Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Down-Slope Flow
 In order for this effect to happen, the
wind speed must be strong enough
for the air to reach the observation
site. Here, it will take 5 hours.
Noon Ground Noon 850 mb
Temp = 20C Temp = 10C
20 m
i
hour les per
<- 5000
feet ->

Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Down-Slope Flow
 Down-slope flow also leads to a
decrease in relative humidity, as
temperature increases but mixing
ratio stays the same.
Noon Ground Noon 850 mb
Temp = 20C Temp = 10C
20 m
i
hour les per
<- 5000
feet ->

Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Up-Slope Flow
 Down-slope flow also leads to a
decrease in relative humidity, as
temperature increases but mixing
ratio
Noonstays
700 mb the same.
Temp = 0C

Noon Ground
Temp = 10C,
<- 5000
feet ->

Dewpoint =
10C
Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Up-Slope Flow
 On this day, if the 700mb
temperature mixed down to the
surface, the temperature would be
0CNoon
+ 15C
700 mb = 15C = 59F
Temp = 0C

Noon Ground
Temp = 10C,
<- 5000
feet ->

Dewpoint =
5C
Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Up-Slope Flow
 With an upslope flow, air would cool
along a dry adiabat until saturation,
then a moist adiabat, the
temperature
Noon 700 mb would be 10C – 13C =
-3CTemp
= =26F
0C
20 m
i
hour les per Noon Ground
Temp = 10C,
<- 5000
feet ->

Dewpoint =
5C
Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Up-Slope Flow
 Also with an upslope flow, air would
be saturated (air is cooler than it’s
dewpoint temperature).
Noon 700 mb
Temp = 0C
20 m
i
hour les per Noon Ground
Temp = 10C,
<- 5000
feet ->

Dewpoint =
5C
Sea
< -100 miles Level
->
 Forecasting Summary
Guide
 NORTH AMERICA SURFACE MAP: What
are the major weather features? What
is the big picture? What air masses
will I be concerned with? Any pending
frontal passages?

 SATELLITE: How are these major

weather features moving? This gives
you a quick impression of speed of
these systems.

 RADAR: Where is precipitation

occurring? How intense are these
systems?
 Forecasting Summary
Guide
 METAR OBSERVATIONS: What is happening
locally? What happened last night and
today? Link with what you see here with
what you would expect to happen based on
your conceptual models developed for the
weather features you have identified in
questions #1,#2, and #3.

 CLIMATOLOGY: What is normal? What are

the extremes/records typically experienced?
Will any of the weather features identified
in the previous questions allow the
approach of extremes or will they be
typically normal?

 LOCAL STATION MODEL OBSERVATIONS:

 Forecasting Summary
Guide
 UPPER LEVEL FLOW: Now we need to link
the upper air weather flow pattern to the
surface weather features? Is the upper air
flow zonal or meridional? Is your location
downstream or upstream of a upper air trof
or ridge? Is it likely that there will be upper
air divergence or convergence? What does
all this mean for the strengthening or
weakening of any surface features?
Moreover, how will this intensity change, if
any, alter the magnitude and timing of the
surface forecast parameters? Identify large
scale temperature and moisture advection?
Jet stream position?
 Forecasting Summary
Guide
 LOCAL EFFECTS: How will topography affect this
forecast? Near mountains, the ocean, in a valley,
downtown? Downsloping vs Upsloping?

 NUMERICAL MODEL OUTPUT: Now that you have an

idea of the future weather for a forecast region after
looking at a number of tools, what do the numerical
models say will happen? Are you close? If so, great!
Probably can stop there! If not, decide what you are
missing by focusing on each forecasted parameter
that is in question and what factors in turn affect
that parameter. After thoroughly checking your
forecast, if in your own mind you still can not
rationalize the difference, stick to your guns! Models
are often wrong!

 MOS NUMBERS: Look at more specific model

information from MOS and grid point data. Adjust
these numbers depending on how your assessment
of things compared with what the models had to say.