Bone is one the hardest tissues of the human body, second only to cartilage in its ability to with stand

stress Functions : 1. Support fleshly structures 2. Protect such vital organs 3. Harbors the bone marrow 4. Reservoir of calcium phosphat and others ions

Composed : I. Bone Matrix II. Cells : Osteocytes Osteoblasts Osteoclasts

I. BONE MATRIX 1. INORGANIC MATTER Calcium Phosphat Bicarbonaat Citrate Magnesium Pottasium Sodium 2. ORGANIC MATTER Collagen Fibers Amorphous Ground substance : a. Chondroitin 4-sulfate b. Chondroitin 6-sulfate c. Keratan Sulfate

II. BONE CELLS

1. OSTEOBLASTS

Synthesis of bone matrix

a. Type I Collagen b. Proteoglycans

c. Glycoprotein
Located at the surfaces of bone tissue, side by side, in away that resembles simple epithelium When actively : Cuboidal to columnar shape When actively declines : Flatten

Osteoclast Osteoblast

Mesenchyme

Osteocyte

Newly formed matrix Bone Matrix

2. OSTEOCYTES
Lie in the lacunae

One osteocytes in each

lacuna

Canaliculi house cytoplasmic process

Processes of adjucent cell make contact via gap junction

This figure is section of bone tissue showing an osteocyte with its cytoplasmic processes surrounded by matrix. Ultrastructure compatible with a low level of synthetic activity is apparent in both nucleus and cytoplasm.

3. OSTEOCLASTS
Very large 5 to 50 contain nuclei Lie in howships lacunae Derived from the fusion of monocytes

Secrete :
a. Acid b. Collagenase

c. Other proteolytic enzymes

PERIOSTEUM AND ENDOSTEUM External and intrnal surfaces of bone are covered by layers of bone forming cells and connective tissue called periosteum and endosteum. 1. Periosteum Outer Layer - Collagen fibers Bundle : Sharpeys fibers - Fibroblasts Inner Layer More celllular (oteoprocenitor cells) is composed of flattened cells to divided into osteoblasts

2. Endosteum

Lines all internal surfaces of cavities with in the bone

Composed : a. Osteoprogenitor cells (single layer)

b. Small amount of connective tissue

Therefore, the endosteum is consider ably thinner than the periosteum Functions of periosteum and endosteum : 1. Nutrition of osseus tissue

2. Supply of new osteoblasts for repair or growth of bone

Interstitial lamellae Haversian system (osteon) Outer circumferential lamellae

Inner Circumferential lamellae

Volkmanns canal

Endosteum

Haversian canal

Periosteum

Schematic drawing of the wall of a long bone diaphsis.

A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
1. Primary, immature or woven bone 2. Secondary, mature or lamellar bone B. GROSS OBSERVATION (CROSS SECTION) 1. Dense area without cavities : Compact Bone

2. Areas with numerous interconecting cavities : Cancellous (spongy) bone

Thick ground section of tibia illustrating the cortical compact bone and the lattice of trabeculae of cancellous bone

In long Bones : 1. Bulbous ends : Epiphyses

Spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone

2. Cylindrical Part : Diaphysis Almost totally composed of compact bone, with a small component of spongy bone on its inner surface around the bone marrow cavity.

Formation of a long bone on a model made of cartilage

Bone collar Osteogenic bud Secondary ossification center Epiphysis Epiphyseal plate

Primary ossification center

Diaphysis

Compact bone

Spongy bone
Epiphysis Secondary ossification center

In Short Bones : Usually have a core of spongy bone completely surrounded by compact bone.

In Flat Bones (Calvaria) Have two layers of compact bone called plated (tables), separated called the diploe.

PRIMARY BONE TISSUE

First bone tissue Temporary, replace by secondary bone tissue, except :

Near the sutures of the flat bones of the skull

In tooth sockets In the insertion some tendons

Characteristics : Irregular array of collagen fibers Smaller mineral content Higher proportion of osteocytes than in secondary bone tissue

SECONDARY BONE TISSUE

Usually found in adults Characteristics : - Collagen fibers : Lamellae - Haversian canals - Haversian system or osteon - Lacunae - The lamellae exhibit a typical organization consisting of : 1. Haversian system 2. Outer circumferential lamellae 3. Inner circumferential lamellae 4. Intertitial lamellae - The haversian canal communicate with : 1. The narrow cavity 2. The periosteum 3. The volkmans canals (do not have concentric lamellae)

Interstitial lamellae Inner Circumferential lamellae Haversian system (osteon) Outer circumferential lamellae

Volkmanns canal Endosteum Haversian canal Periosteum

Schematic drawing of the wall of a long bone diaphsis.

HISTOGENESIS Bone can be formaed in two ways : I. Direct mineralization of matrix secreted by osteoblasts (intra membranous ossification) Deposition of bone matrix preexiting cartilage matrix (endochondral ossification)

II.

I. Intramembranous Ossification formed by intramembranous ossification : The frontal and parietal bones of the skull The occipital and temporal bones of the skull The mandible and maxilla
Mesenchymal Condensation Layer Primary ossification Centre Cells differentiate into osteoblast New Bone Matrix is formed Calcification Encapsulation of some Osteoblast Become Osteocytes

The beginning of intramembranous ossification

Mesenchyme

Bone Blastema

Primary bone Tissue

II.

Endochondral Ossification

Takes place within a piece of Hyalin Cartilage whose shape resembles a small version or model of the bone to be formed.
Bone collar Primary ossification center

Osteogenic bud Secondary ossification center Epiphysis Epiphyseal plate

Diaphysis

Compact bone Spongy bone

Epiphysis Secondary ossification center

Endochondral ossification consists of two phases : 1. The first phase Hypertrophy and destruction of the chondrocytes of the model of the bone, leaving expanded lacunae separated by septa of calcified cartilage matrix. 2. The second phase
Osteogenic bud consisting of osteoprogenitor cells Blood capillaries penetrates the spaces left by the degenerating chondrocytes The osteoprogenitor cells give rise to osteoblasts, with cover the cartilaginous septa with bone matrix The septa of calcified cartilage tissue thus serve as support for the beginning of ossification

THE OSSIFICATION CENTRE

1. 2. Primary ossification centre appears in the diaphysis Secondary ossification centre arises at the centre of each epiphysis
Bone collar Osteogenic bud Secondary ossification center Primary ossification center

Epiphysis Epiphyseal plate Diaphysis

Compact bone Spongy bone

Epiphysis

Secondary ossification center

When the bone tissue that originated at the secondary centres occupies the epiphysis, cartilage remains restricted to 2 places : 1. Articular cartilage -

Persist throughout adult life

Does not contribute to bone formation

2. Epiphyseal cartilage or the epiphyseal plate

Connect epiphysis to diaphysis

As the cartilage grows, it is replace continously by newly formed bone matrix mainly from the diaphyseal centre

Articular cartilage Epiphysis Epiphyseal plate cartilage Diaphysis Secondary ossification center (marrow space)

Primary ossification center (marrow space)

Schematic drawings showing the 3-dimensional shape of bone spicules in the epiphyseal plate area. Hyaline cartilages is stipple, calcifed cartilage is black, and bone tissue is shown in color. The upper drawing shown the region represented 3-dimensionally in the lower drawing.

Epiphyseal cartilage, divided into five zones :

1. Resting zone With out morphologic changes in the cells

2. Proliferative zone
Chondrocytes devided rapidly Form columns of stacked cells parallel to the long axis of the bone

3. Hypertrophic cartilage zone Large chondrocytes who cytoplasm has accumulated glycogen The resorbed matrix is reduced to thin septa

4. Calcified cartilage zone

Simultaneous with the death of chondrocytes The thin septa become calcified

5. Ossification zone
Endochondral bone tissue appears Blood capillaries and osteoprogenitor cells formed by mitosis of cells originating from the periosteum invade the cavities The osteoprogenitor cells form osteoblasts

Osteoblasts turn form a discontinuous layer over the septa

Over these septa, the osteoblasts deposit matrix

Resting Zone Proliferative Zone

Hypertrophic cartilage zone Calcified cartilage zone

Ossification zone

Photomicrograph of the epiphyseal plate, showing the change that take place in the cartilage and the formation of bone spicules

MECHANISMS OF CLASSIFICATION
Bone calcium is mobilized by two mechanisms : 1. Rapid Mechanism The simple transference of ions from hydroxyapatite crystal to interstitial fluid into the blood 2. Slow Mechanism Depends on the action hormones a. Parathyroid hormone Activates and increases the number of cells (osteoclasts) promoting resorption of the bone matrix with the consequent liberation of calcium b. Calcitonin Inhibits matrix resorption (its effect, is the opposite of parathyroid hormone)

FRACTURE REPAIR
When fractures :
The damaged blood vessels product a blood clot Destruction of bone cells

Death of Bone cells

During repair : The blood clot, cells and damaged bone matrix are removed by macrophages

Periosteum

Periosteal proliferation

Bone

Newly formed primary bone Callus

Hyaline Cartilage

Newly formed secondary bone

Healed fracture

Repair of a fractured bone by formation of new bone tissue through periosteal and endosteal cell proliferation

The Periosteum and endosteum proliferation of osteoprogenitor cells

Formed a cellular tissue

Bone is formed by endochondral and intramembranous ossifications

Formed Trabeculae of primary bone (A Bone Callus)

The callus is gradually resorbed and replaced by secondary bone