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Mitochondria - A very brief overview Endosymbiosis - Theory and evidence Archaezoa - Eukaryotes lacking mitochondria Gene expression - Mitochondrial proteins coded in the nucleus Mitochondrial genetic codes Gene transport - Mitochondria to nucleus Conclusions
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are organelles found in most eukaryotic organisms. The site of Krebs cycle and electron transport energy producing processes during aerobic respiration Are inherited only from the mother during sexual reproduction in mammals and probably all other vertebrates. Because of their mode of inheritance genetic material found in mitochondria appears to be useful in determining the maternal lineage of organisms.
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Mitochondria
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Matrix
mtDNA
Extranuclear DNA
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA This extranuclear DNA exhibits non-Mendalian inheritance Recombination is known between some mt and ctDNAs Extranuclear DNA may also be called cytoplasmic DNA Generally mtDNA and ctDNA is circular and contains genes for multimeric proteins some portion of which are also coded for in the nucleus Extra-nuclear DNA has a rate of mutation that is independent of nuclear DNA Generally, but not always, all the RNAs needed for transcription and translation are found in mtDNA and ctDNA, but only some of the protein genes
1999 Timothy G. Standish
mtDNA
Mitochondrial DNA is generally small in animal cells, about 1.65 kb In other organisms sizes can be more than an order of magnitude larger Plant mtDNA is highly variable in size and content with the large Arabidopsis mtDNA being 200 kb. The largest known number of mtDNA protein genes is 97 in the protozoan Riclinomonas mtDNA of 69 kb. Most of the genetic information for mitochondrial biogenesis and function resides in the nuclear geneome, with import into the organelle of nuclear DNA-specified proteins and in some cases small RNAs. (Gray et al.,1999)
Endosymbiosis
Origin of Eukaryotes
Two popular theories presupposing naturlaism seek to explain the origin of membrane bound organelles:
1 Endosymbiosis to explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts (popularized by Lynn Margulis (Margulis, 1981) 2 Invagination of the plasma membrane to form the endomembrane system
Origin of Eukaryotes
Two popular theories presupposing naturlaism seek to explain the origin of membrane bound organelles:
1 Endosymbiosis to explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts (popularized by Lynn Margulis (Margulis, 1981) 2 Invagination of the plasma membrane to form the endomembrane system
Mitochondria
Origin of Eukaryotes
Two popular theories presupposing naturlaism seek to explain the origin of membrane bound organelles:
1 Endosymbiosis to explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts (popularized by Lynn Margulis (Margulis, 1981) 2 Invagination of the plasma membrane to form the endomembrane system Endoplasmic Mitochondria Reticulum Nucleus Golgi Body
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Chloroplast
Origin of Eukaryotes
Two popular theories presupposing naturlaism seek to explain the origin of membrane bound organelles:
1 Endosymbiosis to explain the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts (popularized by Lynn Margulis (Margulis, 1981) 2 Invagination of the plasma membrane to form the endomembrane system Endoplasmic Reticulum Mitochondria Nucleus Golgi Body
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Chloroplast
Mitochondrial division and distribution of mitochondria to daughter cells is tightly controlled by even the simplest eukaryotic cells
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Archaezoa
Origin of Gardia
Gardia and other eukaryotes lacking mitochondira and plastids (Metamonada, Microsporidia, and Parabasalia ) have been grouped by some as Archezoa (CavalierSmith, 1983; Campbell et al., 1999 pp524-6) This name reflects the belief that these protozoa split from the group which gained mitochondria prior to that event. The discovery of a mitochondrial heat shock protein (HSP60) in Giardia lamblia (Soltys and Gupta, 1994) has called this interpretation into question. Other proteins thought to be unique to mitochondria, HSP70 (Germot et al., 1996), chaperonin 60 (HSP60) (Roger et al., 1996; Horner et al., 1996) and HSP10 (Bui et al, 1996) have shown up in Gardias fellow Archezoans
Origin of Archezoa
The authors who reported the presence of mitochondrial genes in amitochondrial eukaryotes all reinterpreted prevailing theory in saying that mitochondria must have been present then lost after they had transferred some of their genetic information to the nucleus. The hydrogenosome, a structure involved in carbohydrate metabolism found in some Archezoans (Muller, 1992), is now thought to represent a mitochondria that has lost its genetic information completely and along with that loss, the ability to do the Krebs cycle (Palmer, 1997). Alternative explanations include transfer of genetic material from other eukaryotes and the denovo production of hydrogenosomes by primitive eukaryotes.
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Origin of Archezoa:
Mitochondrial Aquisition
Origin of Archezoa:
Gene Transfer and Loss
mtGenes
Origin of Archezoa:
Option 1 - Mitochondrial Eukaryote Production
Origin of Archezoa:
Option 2 - Mitochondrial DNA Loss/ Hydrogenosome production Hydrogenosome
Origin of Archezoa:
Option 2A - Mitochondria/Hydrogenosome Loss
Gene Transport
All in all then, the host nucleus seems to be a tremendous magnet, both for organellar genes and for endosymbiotic nuclear genes. Palmer, 1997
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Primitive eukaryote
DNA reduction/transfer nucleus production Ancestral eukaryote With nucleus containing both archaebacterium and proteobacterium genes
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Phylogeny
Bacteria Microsporidia, and Parabasalia Metamonada Eukaryota Bacteria mtDNA Hydrogenosome/ loss mitochondria loss mtDNA loss Gene transfer Cell fusion
Origin of Life
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Gene Expression
Export
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Inner membrane
Matrix
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Inter membrane space 1999 Timothy G. Standish
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Hsp60 Hsp60
Inner membrane
Inter membrane space 1999 Timothy G. Standish
Matrix
Chaperones
Inner membrane
Matrix
Mature protein
L Polar R
I
NonR polar
F
K
F
P
MLSLRQSIRFFKPATRTLCSSRYLL
This leader does not resemble other eukaryotic leader sequences, or other mtProtein leader sequences. Probably forms an a helix This would localize specific classes of amino acids in specific parts of the helix There are about 3.6 amino acids per turn of the helix with a rise of 0.54 nm per turn
1999 Timothy G. Standish
A
R
Recognized by peptidase?
L Polar
C
S
Y
MFSNLSKRWAQRTLSKTLKGSKSAAGTATSYFEKLVTAGVAAAGITASTLLYANSLTAGA-------------Uncharged second leader sequence signals for transport across inner membrane into the intermembrane space Second cut
Neutral Non-polar Polar Basic Acidic
Cytochrome c functions in electron transport and is thus associated with the inner membrane on the intermembrane space side Cytochrome c1 holds an iron containing heme group and is part of the B-C1 (III) complex C1 accepts electrons from the Reiske protein and passes them to cytochrome c
Inner membrane
Matrix
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Inter membrane space 1999 Timothy G. Standish
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Peptidease cleaves off the second leader
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Matrix
Inner membrane
Mature protein
Matrix
Resolution of problems resulting from differences Mitochondrial Gene between mitochondrial and nuclear introns Resolution of problems resulting from differences between mitochondiral and nuclear genetic codes
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Additional Requirements
In addition to addition of appropriate control and leader sequences to mitochondrial genes, the following would be needed: Recognition and transport mechanisms in the cytoplasm Leader sequence binding receptors Peptidases that recognize leader sequences and remove them
Lack of variation in codon meanings across almost all phyla is taken as an indicator that initial assignment must have occurred early during evolution and all organisms must have descended from just one individual with the current codon assignments Exceptions to the universal code are known in a few single celled eukaryotes, mitochondria and at least one prokaryote Most exceptions are modifications of the stop codons UAA, UAG and UGA
Organism
A ciliate
A ciliate
Codon/s
Common Meaning Modified Meaning Stop Stop Stop Stop serine glutamine glutamine cysteine tryptophan leucine
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Tetrahymena thermophila UAA UAG A ciliate Paramecium UAA UAG Euplotes octacarinatus Mycoplasma capricolum
A bacteria A yeast
Candida
Cytoplasm/ Nucleus
Nematodes
Molluscs
AUA=Met CUN=Thr
Plants
Yeast/ Molds
AAA=Asn
Universal Code
NOTE - This would mean AUA changed from Ile to Met, then changed back to AUA=Met Ile in the Echinoderms AGA/G=Ser AAA must have changed from Lys to Asn twice UGA=Trp UGA must have changed to Trp then back to stop Differences in mtDNA lower the number of tRNAs needed
1999 Timothy G. Standish
AUA=Ile AAA=Asn
Insects
UGA/G=Stop
Vertebrates
No Modern Examples
Unfortunately for Margulis and S.E.T. [the serial endosymbiotic theory], no modern examples of prokaryotic endocytosis or endosymbioses exist . . . She discusses any number of prokaryotes endosymbiotic in eukaryotes and uses Bdellovibrio as a model for prokaryotic endocytosis. Bdellovibrios are predatory (or parasitoid) bacteria that feed on E. coli by penetrating the cell wall of the latter and then removing nutrient molecules from E. coli while attached to the outer surface of its plasma membrane. Although it is perfectly obvious that this is not an example of one prokaryote being engulfed by another Margulis continually implies that it is.
P.J. Whitfield, review of Symbiosis in Cell Evolution, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 18 [1982]:77-78; p. 78)
1999 Timothy G. Standish
Conclusions
Presence of mitochondrial genes in nuclear DNA reduces the window of time available for mitochondrial acquisition in eukaryotes. Understanding the structure of mitochondrial genes in the nucleus and how they are expressed makes the transfer of genes from protomitochondria to the nucleus appear complex. Differences between mitochondrial genetic codes and nuclear genetic codes adds to the complexity of gene transfer between mitochondria and nucleus. As molecular data accumulates, the endosymbiotic origin of mitochondria appears less probable.
1999 Timothy G. Standish