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Pharynx – also known as the throat, it is a passageway for both air and food.
Three Sections of the Pharynx
• Nasopharynx – contains the adenoids which aid in the body’s immune
defense.
• Oropharynx – back portion of the mouth that contains the palatine
tonsils which also aid in the body’s immune defense.
• Laryngopharynx – bottom section of the pharynx where the respiratory
tract divides into the esophagus and the larynx.
- The epiglottis, a movable flap of cartilage that covers the opening of the
larynx (voice box) prevents food from entering the larynx during
swallowing.
- Occasionally, a person may swallow and inhale at the same time so some
food may enter the larynx and choking occurs. A technique called
Heimlich maneuver has saved many people from choking to death.
Larynx – serves as a passageway to the trachea and the area where sounds are
produced.
Size and thickness determine the pitch of the sound.
- Short and thin = high pitch
- Thick and long = low pitch Larynx
Trachea
Oxygen and Carbon dioxide are exchanged and oxygen is delivered to the
body cells.
• The circulatory system is the life support structure that nourishes your
cells with nutrients from the food you eat and oxygen from the air you
breathe. Another name for the circulatory system is the cardiovascular
system.
• It circulates vital elements such as oxygen and nutrients. At the same
time, it also transports wastes away from the body.
Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle
per beat.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of
the heart per minute.
Cardiac output can be calculated by multiplying the stroke volume
by the heart rate: cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate
Heart rate/pulse rate – is the number of times your heart beats every
minute.
It is expressed in beats per minute (BPM).
The fitter you are, the lower your resting heart rate will be.
Average resting heart rate = 70-75 BPM
To keep the body supplied with what it needs, the hearts beats faster
and with greater force.
This means the heart rate and stroke volume increase.
- Arteries – carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the cells,
tissues, and organs of the body.
- Veins – carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
- Capillaries –the smallest blood vessels in the body, connecting the
smallest arteries to the smallest veins.
the actual site where gases and nutrients get exchanged.
Blood vessels: Valves
When blood is flowing against gravity, or when a vein is squeezed
by muscle action, there is a risk that blood will flow in the wrong direction.
Veins have valves to prevent backflow.
Blood pressure depends on the speed of the blood coming into a vessel
and the width of the vessel itself.
Arteries Capillaries Veins
Speed: High Speed: Medium Speed: Low
Width: medium Width: narrow Width: Wide
Pressure: High Pressure: Medium Pressure: Low
Having High blood pressure puts stress on your heart. It can lead to;
Angina, heart attacks and strokes.
• Blood – carries the materials throughout the body.
Transports oxygen from the lungs to the heart and then body to the tissues,
Carbon dioxide from the tissues to the heart and then to the lungs to be
expired, materials like hormones from one organ to another, nutrients
especially glucose and minerals from the intestines to the tissues, and waste
products to the kidneys.
Surgical Incisions
- Laryngotracheotomy - Sinusotomy
- Thoracotomy - Tracheotomy
Endotracheal intubation is the insertion of a tube through the nose or
mouth, pharynx, larynx, and into the trachea to establish an airway.
V. Pharmacology
Antibiotics, antihistamines, and anticoagulants are used for respiratory
disorders just as with other system disorders.
Key Concepts:
Incomplete dominance is a form of intermediate inheritance in which
one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other
allele.
This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a
combination of the dominant and recessive phenotypes.
• Codominance
- this results when one allele is not dominant over the other. The resulting
heterozygotes exhibit the traits of both parents.
Key Concepts:
In codominance, both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of
the heterozygote. For example, red cows crossed with white cows will have
offspring that are roan cows. Roan refers
• Multiple Alleles
- even if only two alleles control a trait, there may actually be more than two
types of alleles available. This will also lead to more than two phenotypes
expressed.
An example of this is the Human ABO blood types and their phenotypes.
Blood Types Genotypes
A IA IA, IA i
B IB IB, IB i
AB IA IB
O ii
The IA and IB alleles are dominant over the i alleles, which is always recessive.
However, when the IA and IB alleles are inherited together, both alleles are
expressed equally. This makes IA and IB codominants of each other.
Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination
- Humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell
Observation of the human body cell shows 23 pairs of chromosomes for both
males and females. 22 pairs are somatic chromosomes. The 23rd pair consists
of sex chromosomes.
Male Chromosome (XY) Female Chromosome (XX)
Key Concepts:
Males have 44 body chromosomes and two sex chromosomes X and Y.
Males = XY Chromosomes
The males determine the sex of their children. Females Have 44 body
chromosomes and two sex chromosomes, both X
Females = XX Chromosomes
The total number in each cell of an individual is 46. These chromosomes
contain the genes, which are the factors of heredity.
Sex-Linked Genes
Genes located on the X chromosomes are called X-Linked Genes. Genes
on the Y chromosomes are called Y-Linked Genes
Genotype Phenotype
-Ex. Genotypes and
XX Normal Female
phenotypes of color
blindness in humans X XC Normal Female, carrier of the gene
XC XC Color-blind female
XY Normal male
XC Y Color-blind male
Key Concepts:
- Sex-linked traits are inherited through the X chromosomes.
- Males have only one X chromosome. Thus, if they inherit the affected
X chromosome, they will have the disorder.
- Females have two X chromosomes. Therefore, they can
inherit/carry the trait without being affected if it acts in a recessive manner
Sex-Limited Traits
- are generally autosomal. Which means that they are not found on the
X or Y chromosomes.
Female Female Phenotype
Genotype
Ex. Expression of lactation XXLL Female Lactating
in cattle
XXLl Female Lactating
XXll Female not lactating
Male Male Phenotype
Genotype
XYLL Male not lactating
XYLl Male not lactating
XYll Male not lactating
Sex-Influenced Traits
- are also autosomal, it means that their genes are not carried on to the
sex chromosomes. One example of sex influenced trait is pattern baldness in
humans, though the condition is not restricted to males.
Female Female Phenotype
Genotype
XXBB Female Bald
XXBb Female nonbald Ex. Expression of pattern
XXbb Female nonbald baldness in humans.
Key Concepts:
- Sex limited traits are those that are expressed exclusively in one sex
- Sex influenced traits are expressed in both sexes but more
frequently in one than in the other sex.
III. DNA: The Genetic Material
- The genetic materials, also known as the deoxyribonucleic acid or
DNA, are passed on from one generation to the next to ensure continuity
of life.
- By the end of 1940, scientists had found that DNA consists of long
strands of nucleotides;
DNA is composed of chains of nucleotides built on a sugar and
phosphate backbone and wrapped around each other in the form of a double
helix.
Each nucleotide contains a pentose
sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate
group, and one of the four compounds called
nitrogenous bases;
- Population is a group of living things within a certain area that are all
of the same species.
A population of one kind may affect a population of another kind within
the community.
- Biodiversity refers to the variety of life in the area.
• Deforestation – is the rapid rate at which trees are cut down. Major
causes of deforestation are;
- Illegal logging
- Conversion of agricultural lands to housing projects
- Forest fires
- Typhoons
As a consequence of cutting down trees, the following effects could take
place; soil erosion, floods, decrease in wildlife resources.
• Air pollution – Pollutants can enter the air as gases, liquids, or solids.
Cars burn fuel and produce harmful gases-carbon dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, and hydrocarbons.
The trapping of heat by gases in the earth’s atmosphere is called the
greenhouse effect.
Global warming is an increase in the earth’s temperature from the rapid
buildup of carbon dioxide and other gases. This, in turn, could change the
world climate patterns.
Acid water flowing through the soil can exchange acidic hydrogen ions for
essential plant nutrient ions such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. If
these nutrients migrate beneath the rooting zone, they become unavailable to
tree roots.
Organisms need food as the main source of energy. All organisms need energy
to perform essential life processes.
The food must be digested to simple forms such as glucose, amino
acids, and triglycerides.
Glucose – immediate source of the cells
- Glucose inside the cell is broken down to release the stored
energy.
- this stored energy is harvested in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP). ATP is a high-energy molecule needed by
working cells.
Pyruvate is transported
into the mitochondria and
loses carbon dioxide to form
acetyl-CoA, a 2-carbon
molecule. When acetyl-CoA is
oxidized to carbon dioxide in
the Krebs Cycle, chemical
energy is released and
captured in the form of NADH,
FADH2, and ATP.
• Upper and lower epidermis – protects the leaves and has nothing to do
with photosynthetic processes.
• Mesophyll – has the most number of chloroplasts that contain
chlorophyll. They are important in trapping light energy from the sun.
• Vascular bundles – phloem and xylem serve as transporting vessels of
manufactured food and water.
Carbon dioxide and oxygen were collected in the spongy layer and
enters and exits the leaf through the stomata.
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