VOLCANO

Volcano
- Vent in the crust of the Earth which issue eruptions of molten rocks, hot rocks, ashes &
hot gases
- Vulcan (From the Roman God of Fire)
- Created by the accumulation of solidified lava and volcanic debris near the vent
- Can be classified according to its shape, materials, what it is made out of, and way of
eruption

Parts of a Volcano
1. Magma chamber
- Large underground storage of Magma below the Earth’s crust

2. Main Vent
- Primary opening of a Volcano; where magma is able to rise from its chamber and reach
the surface

3. Throat
- Entrance of the volcano where lava and ash are expelled

4. Sill
- Flat piece of rock formed when magma hardens in the cracks of the Volcano

5. Dike
- Fracture of cracks into which magma might erupt

6. Flank
- Side of a Volcano

7. Crater
- Mouth of the Volcano which is above the vent

8. Summit
- Highest point; apex

9. Ash
- Fragments of lava or rock

10. Ash Cloud

- Cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions
Ring Of Fire
- Volcanic Chain surrounding Pacific Ocean
- Famous for regular volcanic / earthquake eruptions
- Home to 75% of the world’s volcano and 90% of its earthquakes

3 Main Places
1. Divergent Plates
- Movement of tectonic plates away from eachother for magma to flow through

2. Convergent Plate Boundaries

- One plate will subduct over one another

3. Hot Spots
- Caused by convection (continous heating) of hot mantle at the mantle plume
- Locations on Earth that experienced volcanic acts for a long time
- 40 to 50 identified Hot Spots
- Hawaii, Yellowstone, Iceland, Reunion, Galaspagos Island

John Tuzo Wilson

- Canadian Geologist
- Proposed Volcanic Island Chains, created by fixed “Hot Spots” in the Mantle

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
1. Non Explosive Eruption
- Characterized by Lava Flow
- Lava flows out of Crater and rifts on the sides of a Volcano
- Low gas content and has low viscosity
- Magmas: Basaltic (High in Iron, Magnesium, Calcium) & Andesitic (Rich in Manesium &
Silicon)

2. Explosive Eruption
- Gases are trapped within the Magma which build pressure
- Large amount of Pyroclastic materials are ejected to air
- Can last for several hours and days

Pyroclastic Materials
- Lapili (Little Stones)
- Ash
- Volcanic Ash
- Volcanic Bombs

Types of Eruption
 1. Hawaiian
- Least Violent, High Fluid or Runny Lava that creates Shield Volcanoes

2. Strombolian
- Violent, featuring continuous ejection of Magma & Gas that results to Volcanic Bombs
and Cinder Cones

3. Vulcanian
- Thick, Viscous Magma that flows around the Vent

4. Plinian
- Most Violent & Explosive type of eruption which is caused by the buildup of viscous of
dissolved magma and gas

Causes of Eruption
- Divergent Movement
- Convergent Movement

Additional Informations
- 1,500 Potentially Active Volcanoes
- 500 Volcanoes Erupted in Historical Time
- 24 Active Volcanoes in the Philippines as of January 2024
- Super Ocean is called PANTHALASA
- Super Continent is called PANGEA

Countries and the # of their Volcanoes

- Usa (161) 63 active ones as of 1600
- Russia (166)
- Indonesia (139)
- Japan (122) 40 active ones sin 1960
- Chile (104) 19 active since 1960
- Philippines (50) 24 active
- Mexico (43)
- Brazil, Malaysia, Nigeria, Jordan (Has the LEAST amount of Volcanoes)

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
1. Composite Volcano
2. Cinder Cone Volcano
3. Subglacial Volcano
4. Shield Volcano
5. Volcanic Dome / Lava Dome
6. Super Volcano
 WEATHER
Weather
- The state of atmosphere that we experience in a short period / amount of time

Climate
- The state of atmosphere that we experience for a long period / amount of time

Atmosphere
- What makes our planet HABITABLE
- Mixture of different gases
Nitrogen - 78%
Oxygen - 21%
O.G - 1%

Factors That Affect Weather

1. Air Temperature
- Measurement of how HOT & COLD the air is

2. Air Pressure
- The Downward force exerted by the weight of air
Higher Pressure = Lower Temperature
Lower Pressure = Higher Temperature

3. Precipitation (nearness)
- Influenced by proximity of mountain rangeness & wind

Latitude
- Different latitudes receive different amounts of Solar Energy
- Solar Energy affects the temperature and wind patterns of a region

Elevation
- Temperature changes with elevation (rain)
- As the temperature changes, the chances of precipitation changes as well.
- Rising air is most likely to condense
- Falling air warms up and holds more water vapor

Prevailing Winds
- Wind that blows from a single direction over a specific area of Earth
● Northeast Moonsoon (Amihan) From November - February
- Brings Cold Air to our coast from Christmas Season to February
● Southwest Moonsoon (Habagat) From July - September
- Causes heavy rainfall during rainy season
Factors That Influence Precipitation
1. Proximity To Mountain Ranges
a. Orographic Effect - dynamics of air and precipitation on the windward slope of
mountains.
b. Rain Shadow Effect - Leeward slope of mountains which is generally dry and
receives less rain called rain shadow.
1. A
2. Wind
- Movement of air caused by heat from the sun. Winds that originate from a warm
area bring about warm temperatures, while wind from a cool area cools the air.

Westerlies
- Primary winds that moves from the West to the East
● North Westerlies
- Brings warmer, more humid conditions from lower, sub-tropical countries

● South Westerlies
- Brings colder, rainy days, as most air comes from cold, sub-antartic
regions

Easterlies
- Known as Trade Winds
- Powerful prevailing winds that blow from the east across the tropics
● Polar Easterlies
- Dry & Cold prevailing winds that blow from the east

Albedo Effect
- Measure of the reflectivity of a surface
- Measure of how much the Sun’s Energy is reflected back into space
- Latin word for “Whiteness”
- Earth’s Albedo has a cooling effect

Greenhouse
- A structure that is covered with clear glass that traps the Sun’s heat inside
(the atmosphere represents the clear glass as it absorbs the Sun’s heat)

Greenhouse Gasses
- Gaseous substances that absorbs infrared radiation from the Sun and traps the heat in
the Atmosphere

Climate Change
- Is a result of Global Warming
 - Refers to the changes in Precipitation Patterns, Intensity, Frequency, and episodes of
Heatwaves and Drought

STARS
1. How do stars form?
- All stars form from the slow contraction under gravity of a very large cloud of gas and
dust particles in space.
- Slightly denser regions pull in material from less-dense areas due to gravity. Once the
object’s center becomes dense enough, hot enough (some 10 million degrees) due to
increasing pressure — hydrogen begins to fuse to form helium. And this process emits
energy.
- The whole process takes millions of years
- Nuclear fuel

Stars
- Is a huge sphere of very hot glowing gas or ionized gas held together by gravity
- Give off large amounts of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

2. How do stars produce energy?

- Stars produce their energy through nuclear fusion

3. How do stars die?

- Stars die because they run out of their hydrogen gas fuel or nuclear fuel and die.
- Depend on its mass.
- Massive stars use up their hydrogen fuel or nuclear fuel quickly.
 4. How do stars appear to move in the night sky?
- Stars move in a direction opposite to the rotation of Earth.
- Stars move from east to west.
- Due to Earth rotation on its own axis.
(Counter Clockwise Planet Rotation except Venus / Morning & Evening Star)
(TILTED AXIS or AXIAL TILT = 23.5 Degrees which causes seasons)
(1 Lightyear = 9.5 Trillion km = distance of sun to earth)
8.3 Minutes

Geocentric Theory
- Earth = Center of the Solar System
- Ptolemy & Aristotle

Nicolaus Copernicus
- Proponent of Heliocentric / Heliocentrism
- 1543
- Travel of sun in the Solar System goes with the Planets

Geo-Heliocentric
- The geocentric model says that the earth is at the center of the cosmos or universe, and
the planets, the sun and the moon, and the stars circle around it.
- Taiko Brahe

Sun Color
- The sun is WHITE
- The sun is white from space. It emits colors across many wavelengths causing white
light
- The sun appears to be yellow in the sky because the atmosphere scatters Violet / Blue
Light
- The sun’s visible light peaks in the green part of the spectrum

Nebula
- Birth of Star
- Very Large Cloud of Gas and Dust in Space

Carina Nebula / NGC 3372

- is an enormous cloud of gas and dust home to several massive and bright stars
- Is visible with the unaided eye from Earth’s southern hemisphere.
- Is about 7,500 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation Carina, the Keel

Helix Nebula
- Is a bright, large planetary nebula located 650 light years from Earth in the constellation
Aquarius.
 - It is one of the closest planetary nebulae to Earth, as well as one of the brightest.
- Is believed to have formed about 10,600 years ago
- Is visible in binoculars and easily observed in small telescopes in good conditions.

Nuclear Fusion
- Is the process by which 2 nuclei combine to form a heavier element
- Takes four hydrogen atoms to fuse into one helium atom

Classification of stars
- Temperature (Hot - red / orange Hotter - white Hottest - blue)
- Brightness
- Size Temperature

Size
- Super Giant
- Red Giant
- Main Sequence
- Neutron Star

REMEMBER !!
- The brighter the star, the quicker it dies.
- A tiny red dwarf can survive for trillions of years, and our Sun will last for billions, but
blue giants only live for around 10 million years.

Protostars
- Gravity makes dense region of gas more compact
- Soon take on definite shape

A New Star
- Once the core of a protostar reaches 10,000,00 C, nuclear fission begins, and protostar
ignites.
- The protostar now becomes a star.
 CONSTELLATIONS
Constellation
- Group of stars that form a pattern in the sky
Asterism
- Part of a constellation formed by its stars

FACTS
● 88 constellations (36 in the northern hemisphere, 52 in the southern hemisphere)
● Constellations depends on the location and time
● Largest constellation is the “Hydra”
● Smallest constellation is the “Crux”
● The greeks were the first to name the constellations
● 42 constellations were named after animals
● Easiest constellation to find is the “Orion”
5 Biggest Constellations
- Hydra
- Virgo
- Ursa Major
- Cetus
- Hercules

North Circumpolar Constellations

- Constellations that never set below the horizon
Example of North Circumpolar Constellations
Ursa Major - "Big Bear"
~ Brightest star - Dubhe (an aging star) and Merak
~ largest constellation in the northern hemisphere
~ 3rd largest constellation
~ used as a star clock throughout the history
~ Best season to view - all year

Ursa Minor - "Little Bear"

~ contains the Little Dipper and the North Star, Polaris
~ 56th largest constellation
~ Seven of its star form the Little Dipper

Cepheus - "The King"

~ 27th largest constellation
~ its brightest star is Alderamin, Alpha Cephei
~ has one star with known planets

Draco - "The Dragon"

~ Brightest star - Gemma Draconis, Eltanin
 ~ Best season to view - summer evenings
~ ninth largest constellation
~ has nine stars with known planets

Cassiopeia - "The Queen"

~ 25th largest constellation
~ Brightest star - Schedar, Alpha Cassiopeiae
~ Best season to view - october to january

Largest Southern Constellations

- Hydra
- Virgo
- Cetus
- Eridanus
- Centaurus
South Circumpolar Constellations
Carina - "The Keel"
~ 34th largest constellation
~ Best season to view - March
~ home to 11 stars with known planets
~ Brightest Star - Canopus, Alpha Carinae

Centaurus
~ represents centaur, half man and half horse
~ Brightest Star - Rigel Kentaurus
~ Best season to view - Spring in May

Crux - Southern Cross

~ prominent constellation
~ smallest of all 88
~ opposite of cassiopeia
~ Brightest Star - Acrux
~ Best seen - Late april and may

Zodiac Constellations
- Can be seen along the ecliptic
- A celestial coordinate system used in astrology

Pisces - "The Fishers"

Aries - "The Ram"
Taurus - "The Bull"
Gemini - "The Twins"
Cancer - "The Crab"
Leo - "The Lion"
Virgo - "The Virgin"
Libra - "The Scales"
Scorpius - "The Scorpion
Ophiuchus - "The Serpent Bearer"
Sagittarius - "The Archer"
Capricornus - "The Sea Goat"
Aquarius - "The Water Bearer"

Other Constellations
Cygnus - "The Swan"
~ Brightest Star - Deneb
~ Best season to view - all year
~ Best seen during summer and fall around september
~ Known as the "Northern Cross"

Orion - "The Hunter"

~ Brightest Star - Rigel and Betelgeuse
~ Best season to view - the winter
~ clearly visible in the night sky from november to february

Scorpious - “The Scorpion”

~ Brightest star - Antares
~ Best season to view - summer
~ has over ten stars with planets in its constellations
~ Best seen - month of july ( northern and southern)

SEASON TO VIEW
Spring: Cancer, Crater, Hydra, Leo, Virgo
Summer: Aquila, Cygnus, Hercules, Lyra, Ophiuchus, Sagittarius, Scorpius
Fall: Andromeda, Aquarius, Capricornus, Pegasus, Pisces
Winter: Orion