Learning and Decision Making

Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Learning
Involves change Is relatively permanent Is acquired through experience

Theories of Learning (contd)

Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment

Key Concepts
Reflexive (unlearned) behavior Conditioned (learned) behavior Reinforcement

Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response

Theories of Learning (contd)

Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience

Theories of Learning (contd)

Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response

Key Concepts
Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Providing a reward for a desired behavior

Negative reinforcement
Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs

Punishment
Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior

Extinction
Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation

Effects of Contingent Consequences

Type of consequence involved
Presence of a positive (Positive Reinforcement)

Positive

Absence of positive/negative (Extinction)

Negative

Removal of a negative (Negative Reinforcement)

Presence of a negative (Punishment)

Increased

Decreased

Likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated

Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated

Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a uneven passage of time Fixed-Ratio Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform response intervals Variable-Ratio Schedule Rewards are initiated after a uneven number of responses

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules

Rational Decision-Making Process

Determine criteria

Generate list of alternatives

Decisions: Choices of actions from among multiple feasible alternatives

Determine appropriate criteria
What information is needed in order to evaluate alternatives?

Evaluate alternatives

List and evaluate alternatives

Develop an complete list of possible solutions to the problem (few constraints) Assess each alternative using each criterion from step 1

Six Step Rational Decision-Making Process

Determine criteria

Generate list of alternatives

Decisions: Choices of actions from among multiple feasible alternatives

Select best solution

Evaluate alternatives

Choose the one which satisfies the criteria the best Monitor the results

Implement and follow up

Choose best solution

Implement solution

Follow Up

How Decisions are Actually Made

Bounded Rationality
Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.

Optimal decision
The maximizing decision, yielding the absolute best result

Satisficing decision
Satisfactory rather than optimal decision

Attribution Theory
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.

Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: Response is the same as others to same situation.

Consistency: Responds in the same way over time.

Attribution Theory
One of your coworkers avoids you at work. Do you attribute her behavior to internal causes (she is shy or aloof) or to external causes (it is something about you or the situation)? IF the coworker avoids other coworkers (distinctiveness), AND IF other coworkers dont avoid you (consensus), AND IF this coworker always avoids you (consistency), THEN you are likely you attribute her behavior to internal causes

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others
Thought: When students get an A on an exam, they often say they studied hard. But when they dont do well, how does the self-serving bias come into play?

In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the situation.

Self-Serving Bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

Break

Eight Cognitive Biases

Confirmation bias Seeking information that confirms early beliefs and ideas Availability bias Relying too much on information that is easy to recall from memory

Escalation of commitment bias Not treating past investments (time, effort, money) as sunk-costs when deciding to continue an investment

Cognitive Biases
Anchoring bias Emphasizing too much, the first piece of information encountered

Eight Cognitive Blunders

Framing bias Making decisions based upon how the problem is presented

Small sample bias Relying too much on information from a small sample of all possible data

Cognitive Biases
Conjunctivity bias Belief that events that occur in conjunction are more likely than the events by themselves Overconfidence bias Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions

Framing Bias
Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are as follows:
If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that 600 people will be saved and a two-thirds probability that no people will be saved. If Program A is adopted, 400 people will die. If Program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that nobody will die and a two-thirds probability that 600 people will die.

Framing Bias
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% Gain Safe Choice Loss Risky Choice 37% 24% 63% 76%

A final word on decision biases

Do you think were doomed to make terrible decisions? Is there hope for us yet?
YES! This is only a list of things that can go wrong during decision making. Now that youre aware of these pitfalls you can try to avoid them!

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence

1. Reciprocity
People are more likely to comply with a request from someone who has previously provided a favor or concession.

Reciprocity
Reciprocity is the causal mechanism behind FAVOR EXCHANGE.
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Immediately One month later

Giver Receiver

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence

2. Commitment and Consistency

After committing to a position, people are more likely to comply with requests consistent with that position.
Useful example: In favor exchange, if you ask Can you do me a favor? before you ask for the favor, it will greatly increase the likelihood of obtaining compliance by establishing pre-commitment.

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence

3. Scarcity
As a resource becomes more scarce, it becomes more critical and valuable in our minds, even more than it deserves.

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence

4. Social Validation
People are more likely to comply with requests if they are consistent with what similar others are doing.
Informational Social Influence Normative Social Influence Asch Conformity Experiment

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence 5. Liking

People are more inclined to comply with a request from someone whom they find likeable. We like people who:
are attractive

are similar to us like us

Cialdinis 6 principles of influence

6. Authority/Expertise

People are more likely to be persuaded by someone who possesses more status or expertise, regardless of the strength of their arguments. Some surprising, superficial markers of authority include:
A deep, assertive voice Graying hair Eyeglasses Dress/Clothes (Suit or uniform) British accent Height

Social Influence is Everywhere!

Think of a time when you resisted an influence attempt at work. What made you resist? Could the person attempting to influence you have done anything differently to get you to behave the way he or she wanted? Discuss a time in which you were convinced to buy or do something you hadnt intended to buy/do because somebody used one of Cialdinis six principles of influence. Describe the situation, then identify the relevant principle or principles, and discuss how the principle(s) apply.

Personality & Cultural Value

Things that impact how your team functions!

33

Personality

Openness to Experience and Creativity

Changes in Big Five Dimensions Over the Life Span

HOFSTEDE
Power Distance: This dimension expresses the degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. The fundamental issue here is how a society handles inequalities among people. People in societies exhibiting a large degree of power distance accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. In societies with low power distance, people strive to equalize the distribution of power and demand justification for inequalities of power.

37

Can organizational empowerment work in multinational settings?

Key
Share accurate Information & Feedback

Power Distance

High
People do not expect to get all information Difficult to provide honest feedback to leaders Boundaries are easy to create but hard to widen Hard to replace hierarchy when leader is part of the team

Low
People expect and welcome information Comfortable to provide honest feedback to leaders Boundaries can be created in collaboration and easy to widen People welcome leader as part of the team

Create autonomy Via boundaries Replace hierarchy with teams

HOFSTEDE

Indulgence vs Restraint: Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human drives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.

39

HOFSTEDE
Pragmatic vs Normative
This dimension describes how people in the past, as well as today, relate to the fact that so much that happens around us cannot be explained. In societies with a normative orientation most people have a strong desire to explain as much as possible. People in such societies have a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth; they are normative in their thinking. They exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future and a focus on achieving quick results.

In societies with a pragmatic orientation, most people dont have a need to explain everything, as they believe that it is impossible to understand fully the complexity of life. The challenge is not to know the truth but to live a virtuous life. In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness and perseverance in achieving results.

40

HOFSTEDE
Uncertainty Avoidance

The uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. The fundamental issue here is how a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? Countries exhibiting strong UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas. Weak UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles.

41

HOFSTEDE
Masculinity vs Femininity

The masculinity side of this dimension represents a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness and material rewards for success. Society at large is more competitive. Its opposite, femininity, stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and quality of life. Society at large is more consensus-oriented.

42

HOFSTEDE
Individualism vs Collectivism

The high side of this dimension, called individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of only themselves and their immediate families. Its opposite, collectivism, represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. A society's position on this dimension is reflected in whether peoples self-image is defined in terms of I or we.

43

Can organizational empowerment work in multinational settings?

Key
Share accurate information Create autonomy Via boundaries Replace hierarchy with teams

Individualism

High
People want information that relates to individuals People prefer individual-based boundaries People have difficulty working in teams

Low
People want teamrelated information People prefer teambased boundaries People welcome a team-focus

Attributes of Individualismcollectivism
(Triandis, 1995) Independent vs. interdependent selfconstrual
Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991)

Consequences of selfconstrual
Independent self

(Triandis, 1994)

Success is attributed to ability; Interdependent self failure is attributed to external Success is attributed to help causes from others; failure is attributed Self-focused emotions and of to lack of effort long duration Other-focused emotions and of Focus on my needs, rights, short duration capacity

Has many ingroups; but relationships are casual, with little emotional involvement
Debate, confrontation are acceptable Conflict with out-groups is accepted but not desired

Focus on the needs of my ingroup (obligation) Has few ingroups; but relationship to them is close, with much concern for their integrity

In-group harmony is required

Conflict with out-groups is expected

100 years of I-C: main findings in org. context

Earley & Gibson, 1998

Domain Groups

Research Findings Collectivists perform best when working in a group, when given shared responsibility, and when given group-focused training Individualists perform best when working alone, when given individual responsibility, and when given individual training; they resist teams more than collectivists Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between I-C and group behavior

Leadership

For collectivists, effective leadership consists of both direction and participation Leader social support is more important for collectivists than for individualists Individualists respond less favorably to authoritarian leadership than collectivists Individualists rely more on their own experience and on their subordinates experience when making decisions than do

Domain Rewards

Research Findings Individualists prefer individual-based compensation and equity allocations Collectivists prefer group-based compensation and equalitarian allocations, except in out-group situations in which they prefer equity allocations. On the other hand, their preferences appear to be changing over time as businesses become more global Collectivists demonstrate more differences in conflict resolution among ingroups vs. outgroups When dealing with ingroup members, collectivists prefer indirectness, cooperativeness, avoiding, yielding, and compromising; when dealing with outgroup members, collectivists start the negotiation by stating what is non-negotiable Individualists tend to start negotiations by looking for common ground, prefer direct methods, contending, and problem solving Individualists tend to have clear ideas about means and ends and prefer to have control over the process

Conflict

Team Processes

Team process is a term that reflects the different types of activities and interactions that occur within teams and contribute to their ultimate end goals. Team characteristics, like member diversity, task interdependence, team size, and so forth, affect team processes. Team processes, in turn, have a strong impact on team effectiveness.

Team Value

Process gain is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members. Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members.

Effects of Group Processes

+ MINUS

Goal: Maximize Process Gains While Minimizing Process Losses!

Process Losses

Coordination loss consumes time and energy that could otherwise be devoted to task activity. Motivational loss is the loss in team productivity that occurs when team members do not work as hard as they could.

Motivation Losses in Teams

Amount of individual effort expended The greater the number of people who work on a group task, the smaller the contribution any one member of the group will make

One person working alone

Small groups

Large groups

(Greenberg, 1996)

Taskwork Processes
Taskwork processes are the activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks.
When teams engage in creative behavior, their activities are focused on generating novel and useful ideas and solutions. Brainstorming involves a face-to-face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue. Nominal group technique is similar to a traditional brainstorming session, but it makes people write down ideas on their own, thereby decreasing social loafing and production blocking.

Taskwork Processes, Contd

Decision Making
Decision informity reflects whether members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities. Staff validity refers to the degree to which members make good recommendations to the leader. Hierarchical sensitivity reflects the degree to which the leader effectively weighs the recommendations of the members.

Taskwork Processes, Contd

Boundary Spanning involves activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered part of the team. Ambassador activities refer to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team. Task coordinator activities involve communications that are intended to coordinate taskrelated issues with people or groups in other functional areas. Scout activities refer to things team members do to obtain information about technology, competitors, or the broader marketplace.

Teamwork Processes
Teamwork processes refer to the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the teams work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself. Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out. Transition processes, action processes, interpersonal processes Transition processes are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work. Mission analysis, strategy formulation, goal specification Action processes are important as the taskwork is being accomplished. Monitoring progress toward goals, coordination

Teamwork Processes, Contd

Interpersonal processes are important before, during, or in between periods of taskwork. Motivating and confidence building refers to things team members do or say that affect the Conflict management activities that the team uses degree to whichinvolves members are motivated to work to manage conflicts that arise in the course of its work. hard on the task.
Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team members in terms of interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences. Task conflict refers to disagreements among members about the teams task.

Effects of Conflict on Task Performance

High Task Conflict

Low Low Degree of Conflict High

Task Performance

Relationship Conflict

Team States

Team states refer to specific types of feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of their experience working together. Cohesion, potency, mental models, transactive memory

Team States, Contd

Cohesion happens when members of teams develop strong emotional bonds to other members of their team and to the team itself. Groupthink happens in highly cohesive teams when members may try to maintain harmony by striving toward consensus on issues without ever offering, seeking, or seriously considering alternative viewpoints and perspectives.

Avoid too much cohesion by assessing the teams cohesion, and appointing a devils advocate.

Team States, Contd

Potency refers to the degree to which members believe that the team can be effective across a variety of situations and tasks. High potency, members are confident that their team can perform well, and as a consequence, they focus more of their energy on achieving team goals.

Team members confidence in their own capabilities, their trust in other members capabilities, and feedback about past performance play a role in developing high potency.

Team States, Contd

Mental models refer to the level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task. Transactive memory refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team.

Importance of Team Processes

Teamwork processes have a moderate positive relationship with team performance. Teamwork processes have a strong positive relationship with team commitment.

Teams that engage in effective teamwork processes tend to continue to exist together into the future.
People tend to be satisfied in teams in which there are effective interpersonal interactions.

Effects of Teamwork Process on Performance and Commitment

Are Teams Good?

Disadvantages
Time consuming

Advantages
Breadth of information
Diversity of perspectives Social facilitation

Conflict, disagreement
Free riding (social loafing)

Legitimacy of process
Commitment to solution

Danger of conformity
Lack of coordination

Application: (When) Are Teams Good?

Team decision-making results in better outcomes ...
1. Complex tasks 2. Novel, unfamiliar tasks 3. Division of labor is possible 4. Creativity and innovation are essential 5. Cooperation or buy-in are required

Individual decisionmaking may be more efficient ...

1. Relatively simple tasks 2. Routine, familiar tasks 3. No division of labor 4. Following traditional rules, norms, or precedents 5. No cooperation or buy-in is required

Training Teams
Taken together, knowledge, skills, and abilities are referred to as transportable teamwork competences. Trainees can transport what they learn about teamwork from one team context and apply it in another. Examples Conflict Resolution Collaborative Problem Solving Communications

Goal Setting and Performance Management

Planning and Task Coordination

Training Teams, Contd

Cross-training involves training members in the duties and responsibilities of their teammates.
Personal clarification happens when members simply receive information regarding the roles of the other team members. Positional modeling involves team members observing how other members perform their roles. Positional rotation gives members actual experience carrying out the responsibilities of their teammates.

Training Teams, Contd

Team process training occurs in the context of a team experience that facilitates the team being able to function and perform more effectively as an intact unit.
Action learning happens when a team is given a real problem that is relevant to the organization and then held accountable for analyzing the problem, developing an action plan, and finally carrying out the action plan. A second type of team process training involves experience in a team context when there are task demands that highlight the importance of effective teamwork processes.

Training Teams, Contd

Team building training is intended to facilitate the development of team processes related to goal setting, interpersonal relations, problem solving, and role clarification.
Ropes course, laser tag, paint ball, scavenger hunts Team building is most likely to have positive effects for smaller teams and when the exercise emphasizes the importance of clarifying role responsibilities.

T for Teamwork
1. What are the challenges facing the struggling real estate agency? 2. Discuss taskwork and teamwork processes demonstrated by the employees. 3. Discuss team states experienced by the employees.

4. What training strategies did Mr. T use?

5. Would you recommend other strategies or training to help this team? Explain why you believe the strategy/strategies you

See figure 12-4 on pg. 422 for breakdown of team processes

Leadership: Styles and Behaviors

Chapter 14

Why Are Some Leaders More Effective than Others?

Leadership
Leadership is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement. How leaders get the power and influence needed to direct others (Chapter 13). How leaders actually use their power and influence in an effective way. Leaders communicate values, make decisions, motivate, manage emotions, direct team efforts, How do we measure effective leadership?

Leadership Effectiveness
Degree to which the leaders actions result in

The achievement of the units goals.

The continued commitment of the units employees.

The development of mutual trust, respect, and obligation in leadermember dyads.

Saving Private Ryan Clip

As you watch the clip, think of the following:

Who is the leader?

What leadership behaviors did you observe?

Who Becomes a Leader? Born vs. Made?

Are Leaders Born or Made?

Research with 119 pairs of identical twins and 94 pairs of fraternal twins Examined the role of genetic influences in predicting leadership role occupancy and different personality variables

Genetic 30%

Other 70%

Behavioral Theories

Ohio State in the 1950s identified two independent leadership behavior dimensions: 1. Initiating Structure
Extent to which the leader defines and structures the roles of employees in pursuit of goal attainment. Leads to employee motivation, leader effectiveness, job satisfaction and unit performance.

2. Consideration Behavioral Theories Extent to which the leader creates job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employee ideas, and consideration of employee feelings. Leads to leader effectiveness, employee motivation, and job satisfaction.

Initiating Structure

38

Consideration

40

Leadership Styles

Is there likely to be one best style? What factors might impact the appropriateness of the various styles?

Contingency Theories

E.g. Path-goal theory

Leadership Styles

Leaders can be separated by the style they use when making important decisions These styles vary in how much control is retained by the leader, and how much control is given to the followers

TimeSensitive Model

Time-Sensitive Model

Scientific support:
In one study, following the model resulted in effective decisions 68% of the time. Not following the model resulted in effective decisions 22% of the time.

Leaders instincts usually violate the model

Leaders overuse consultative styles and underutilize autocratic and facilitative

Day-toDay Behaviors

Something Is Missing

Think about the most effective leaders you can name Do the leader behaviors and styles discussed thus far capture what it was that made these leaders so effective? So whats missing?

Transformational Leadership

A pattern of behaviors that inspires followers to commit to a shared vision that provides meaning to their work and sets the leader up as a role model who helps followers reach their potential
It is most often contrasted with so-called transactional leadership, which is built around exchanges of rewards and punishments, or laissez-faire leadership, which is the absence of action

Transformational Leadership

Idealized influence (charisma) Inspirational motivation Intellectual stimulation

Individualized consideration (coaching)

Charismatic Company Vision Leader

Steven Jobs Charles Schwab Herb Kelleher Apple Computer Charles Schwab Southwest Airlines Mary Kay Cosmetics News Corporation Walt Disney Co. To make computing simple and available to everyone. To provide high-quality financial services to people at reasonable prices. To provide excellent service and great value to the flying public. To enhance the self-esteem of women by building their financial independence while providing quality cosmetics. To provide accurate access to news for people throughout the world. To provide wholesome, high-quality entertainment to families throughout the world.

Mary Kay Ash

Rupert Murdoch Walt Disney

How Important is Leadership?

Break

97

Leadership; Power & Influence Part One

Importance of Leadership
What skills must middle managers develop to be promoted?

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

82%

78% 62%

Strategic Thinking

Leadership

Communication

Leadership and Power

Leadership is the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers toward goal achievement. Power can be defined as the ability to influence the behavior of others and resist unwanted influence in return. Just because a person has the ability to influence others does not mean he will actually choose to do so.

Power can be seen as the ability to resist the influence attempts of others.

How do Leadership & Power differ?

Leaders use power as a way to attain group goals, and power is a means for facilitating their achievement. Leadership requires goal commitment & congruence Power only requires dependence

Types of Power

Organizational Power Legitimate power is derived from a position of authority inside the organization and is sometimes referred to as formal authority. Reward power exists when someone has control over the resources or rewards another person wants. Coercive power exists when a person has control over punishments in an organization.

Types of Power

Personal Power Expert power is derived from a persons expertise, skill, or knowledge on which others depend. Referent power exists when others have a desire to identify and be associated with a person.

The Contingencies of Power

Table 13-3

Using Influence
Influence is the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral or attitudinal changes in others.
Influence can be seen as directional.
Most frequently occurs downward (managers influencing employees) but can also be lateral (peers influencing peers) or upward (employees influencing managers).

Influence is all relative.

Absolute power of the influencer and influencee isnt as important as the disparity between them.

Influence Tactics and Their Effectiveness

Responses to Influence Attempts

Effects of Power and Influence

Dark Sides of Power & Influence

"Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men." Lord Acton, 1887

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

Stanford Prison Experiment, 1971 From the Stanford Prison Experiment website: What happens when you put good people in an evil place? Does humanity win over evil, or does evil triumph? These are some of the questions we posed in this dramatic simulation of prison life conducted in the summer of 1971 at Stanford University
http://www.prisonexp.org/

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

Zimbardo Prison Experiment

How we went about testing these questions and what we found may astound you. Our planned two-week investigation into the psychology of prison life had to be ended prematurely after only six days because of what the situation was doing to the college students who participated. In only a few days, our guards became sadistic and our prisoners became depressed and showed signs of extreme stress.
Philip G. Zimbardo

Could this happen today?

Power can corrupt

Effects on power-holders

Self-serving attributions Preference for own group Lack of attention to subordinates and their perspectives Disinhibition Creation of systems, rules, and ideologies that favor the self and the group Conviction that self-serving rules are fair & legitimate

Steve Jobs
He oozes smug superiority, lacing his public comments with ridicule of Apples rivals, which he casts as mediocre, evil andworst of alllacking taste. (Fortune, March 17, 2008)

Parks his Mercedes in handicapped spaces Periodically reduces employees to tears

Fires employees in angry tantrums

Did not agree to pancreatic cancer surgery at first Break-the-rules-attitude: Refuses to put license plate on his Mercedes (Its a little game I play) Requested his own plane ($88 million)

Could this happen today? Steve Ballmer

Prior to joining Google, I set up a meeting on or about November 11, 2004 with Microsofts CEO Steve Ballmer to discuss my planned departure. At some point in the conversation Mr. Ballmer said: Just tell me its not Google. I told him it was Google. At that point, Mr. Ballmer picked up a chair and threw it across the room hitting a table in his office. Mr. Ballmer then said: Fing Eric Schmidt is a fing pussy. Im going to fing bury that guy. I have done it before, and I will do it again. Im going to fing kill Google. Thereafter, Mr. Ballmer resumed trying to persuade me to stay. Among other things. Mr. Ballmer told me that Googles not a real company. Its a house of cards.

The flip side: Powerlessness

Milgram Experiments

1. Why do you think so many study participants obeyed the experimenters instructions?
2. Do you think if Milgram would run his experiments in todays age, he would find the same results? Why or why not?

Milgram Experiments Replication (2006)

Jerry Burger repeated experiment at Santa Clara University Stopped at 150-volt (opposed to 450 volts) 70% of participants administered the 150-volt shock (opposed to 80%)

The mindset of the individual participant is less important than the situational features such as authority figure taking responsibility and having the participant increase the voltage gradually.

Powerlessness
Blind Obedience (Milgram Study) Rebellion (externalization)
Believe that the system is unfair Feelings of anger and resentment Group energy is directed against the organizations goals

Lack of participation (internalization)

Believe that success is impossible (fatalism) Withdrawal and apathy (learned helplessness) Group energy is depleted

Overcoming Powerlessness
1. Dont be willing to concede power.
Think of Milgram! Dont be overinfluenced by the power of authority or hierarchy. Fight the temptation to become apathetic.
There are virtually no situations in which you will not have any power.

Overcoming Powerlessness
2. Figure out what you need to get done.

Determine your goals in the situation.

Be specific & action oriented.

Determine your dependencies.
3. Identify your sources of power.

Positional power and personal power.

Determine your supervisors dependencies.

Overcoming Powerlessness
4. Be Proactive.

Ask questions Leverage contacts/build coalitions Question assumptions Document what you are doing. 5. Keep your eye on the ball. Dont waste time/energy on things you cannot control or fix. Keep short term and long term goals in mind. Always know what your alternative is (remember the motivating power of choice).

Power & Influence

Major Lessons Power can affect us in ways we might not be able to predict What happens when good people are put into an evil place? Do they triumph or does the situation dominate their past history and morality? Context is a powerful factor in whether or not power is abused The line between good and evil is permeable and almost anyone can be induced to cross it when pressured by situational forces. ~Philip Zimbardo

Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is the shared social knowledge within an organization regarding the rules, norms, and values that shape the attitudes and behaviors of its employees.
Culture is social knowledge among members of the organization. Culture tells employees what the rules, norms, and values are within the organization.

Organizational culture shapes and reinforces certain employee attitudes and behaviors by creating a system of control over employees.

Types of Culture

Dominant culture vs. subtypes

A dominant culture expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organizations members. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences that members face

Strong vs. weak

A strong culture is characterized by the organizations core values being both intensely held and widely shared. A weak culture is characterized by vagueness, ambiguity, and/or inconsistencies.

Why is Culture Important?

High performing organizations have distinct cultures. WHY?

It is an extension of the reward system. People enjoy being a part of the right kind of culture. (Culture as a motivator and recruitment tool) It is an important determinant of turnover (Think about person-organization fit)

Culture directs employees to the correct behaviors, even when management is not present. (Culture as a control mechanism)

What is the Purpose of Culture?

The four functions of organizational culture:
1. Provide organizational identity. 2. Facilitate organizational commitment. 3. Promote social system stability. 4. Help members make sense of their surroundings.

Why is Culture Important?

15%

Relative Return on Capital

10%

5%

0% -5%
Y = 0.00 + 3.05 X r = .51 (t = 7.4, df. = 160, N = 180)

It took me to age fifty-five

-10%

-15% -2

-1

Relative Culture Strength (firm score - market average; zero is the market average)

to figure that out. I always viewed culture as one of those things you talked about, like marketing and advertising. The thing I have learnt at IBM is that culture is everything - Lou Gerstner

What is the Purpose of Culture?

The four functions of organizational culture:
1. Provide organizational identity. 2. Facilitate organizational commitment. 3. Promote social system stability. 4. Help members make sense of their surroundings.

Layers of Organizational Culture

-Ogres are like onions.

-They stink? -Yes. No! -Oh, they make you cry. -No!. . .Layers. Onions have layers. Ogres have layers. Onions have layers. You get it? We both have layers. -Oh, you both have layers. Oh. You know, not everybody likes onions. Shrek, 2001

Culture Components
Observable artifacts
are the manifestations of an organizations culture that employees can easily see or talk about. Symbols can be found throughout an organization, from its corporate logo to the images it places on its Web site to the uniforms its employees wear. Physical structures are the organizations buildings and internal office designs.

Language reflects the jargon, slang, and slogans used within the walls of an organization. Stories consist of anecdotes, accounts, legends, and myths that are passed down from cohort to cohort within an organization. Rituals are the daily or weekly planned routines that occur in an organization. Ceremonies are formal events, generally performed in front of an audience of organizational members.

Culture Components, Contd

Espoused values are the beliefs, philosophies, and norms that a company explicitly states.
Published documents, verbal statements made to employees by managers.

Basic underlying assumptions are taken-for-granted beliefs and philosophies that are so ingrained that employees simply act on them rather than questioning the validity of their behavior in a given situation.

Pros and Cons of a Strong Culture

Table 16-2

Slide 16-134

Diagnosing Culture: Mary Kay Cosmetics

Cosmetics sales company

Founded in 1963 by Mary Kay Ash Q: What are some of the Direct sales marketing artifacts, values and strategy assumptions inherent in Mary Kay's organizational culture?

Layers of Organizational Culture

Artifacts
Bumblebees Songs Coronations Dress code Pink Cadillacs Shovels God first, family second, job third. The road to heaven is paved with cosmetics. Motherhood and making money Power of femininity Importance of community Entrepreneurship

Values

Assumptions

Layers of Organizational Culture

Artifacts

Values

Assumptions

Tools for Managing Culture

SPECIAL PHYSICAL SETTINGS
Creation of a shared Identity that is attached to employees attainment of organizational goals

COSTUMES

SYMBOLS

JARGON/ LANGUAGE

CEREMONIES

STORIES & SCRIPTS

Tools for Managing Culture

Special Physical Settings
Promote network closure, complete focus on the organization Sealed off from the outside world

Symbols
Objects to reinforce and communicate quickly and economically the values and ideology

Tools for Managing Culture

Ceremonies
Foster cohesion and morale Create a status hierarchy with an equal opportunity reward structure

Costumes
Reinforce collective organizational identity & the shared faith of all members of the organization

Tools for Managing Culture

Jargon/Language The specialized language that insiders know

Communicates assumptions, values, ideology

Stories & Scripts Narratives that make ordinary (but organizationally desirable) actions into extraordinary heroic acts and role models.

Lets look at YOUR organizational culture

Take the next 10 minutes and walk around your CWU building.

List artifacts, values, and underlying assumptions for your campus What tools do you see present for managing culture at your campus?

Break!!!

How is Culture created & sustained?

It starts with the philosophy of the founders and is supported by
Leadership

Top Management
Selection Socialization

Maintaining an Organizational Culture

Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) framework holds that potential employees will be attracted to organizations whose cultures match their own personality.
Some potential job applicants wont apply due to a perceived lack of fit. Organizations will select candidates based on whether their personalities fit the culture, further weeding out potential misfits. Those people who still dont fit will either be unhappy or ineffective when working in the organization.

Socialization is the primary process by which employees learn the social knowledge that enables them to understand and adapt to the organizations culture.
Anticipatory stage happens prior to an employee spending even one second on the job. Encounter stage begins the day an employee starts work. Reality shock is a mismatch of information that occurs when an employee finds that aspects of working at a company are not what the employee expected it to be.

Slide 16-146

Maintaining an Organizational Culture, Contd

Understanding and adaptation is the final stage of socialization, during which newcomers come to learn the content areas of socialization and internalize the norms and expected behaviors of the organization.

The more quickly and effectively an employee is socialized, the sooner that employee becomes a productive worker within the organization.

Managing Socialization
Realistic job preview (RJP) is the process of ensuring that a potential employee understands both the positive and negative aspects of the potential job. One of the most inexpensive and effective ways of reducing early turnover among new employees. Occurs during the anticipatory stage of socialization during the recruitment process.
Slide 16-148

 Newcomer orientation session is a common form of training during which new hires to learn more about the organization. Effective way to start the socialization process.
Effective transmitters of socialization content. Employees who complete orientation have higher levels of satisfaction, commitment, and performance than those who dont.

Managing Socialization, Contd

Slide 16-149

Managing Socialization, Contd

Mentoring is a process by which a juniorlevel employee (protg) develops a deep and long-lasting relationship with a more senior-level employee (mentor) within the organization. Can provide social knowledge, resources, and psychological support to the protg both at the beginning of employment and as the protg continues his or her career with the company.
Slide 16-150

Dimensions Addressed in Most Socialization Efforts

Figure 16-5

How Important Is Organizational Culture?

Personorganization fit is the degree to which a persons personality and values match the culture of an organization. Employees judge fit by thinking about the values they prioritize the most, then judging whether the organization shares those values. When employees feel that their values and personality match those of the organization, they experience higher levels of job satisfaction and feel less stress about their day-to-day tasks. Employees also feel higher levels of trust toward their managers.
Slide 16-152

Effects of PersonOrganization Fit on Performance and Commitment

Figure 16-7
Slide 16-153

Course Evaluations!

Ability

Chapter 10

Class Agenda

Ability defined Cognitive ability Emotional intelligence Physical abilities Best practices

Ability

The relatively stable capabilities people have to perform a particular range of different but related activities
In contrast to skills, which are more trainable and improvable

As with personality, about half of the variation in ability levels is due to genetics

Gattaca

Steve Colbert-Designer Babies

Cognitive Ability

Cognitive abilities are capabilities related to the acquisition and application of knowledge in problem solving.

Cognitive Ability, Contd

Verbal ability refers to various capabilities associated with understanding and expressing oral and written communication.
Oral comprehension is the ability to understand spoken words and sentences. Written comprehension is the ability to understand written words and sentences. Oral expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas by speaking. Written expression refers to the ability to communicate ideas in writing.

GMAT Verbal Reasoning

Contrary to popular myth, war heroes rarely earn their status by acting as if they themselves are invincible. a. if they themselves are invincible b. though they are invincible

c. being invincible
d. invincible e. if they were invincible

Cognitive Ability, Contd

Quantitative ability refers to two types of mathematical capabilities.

Number facility is the capability to do simple math operations (adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing).

Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability to choose and apply formulas to solve problems that involve numbers.

GMAT Quantitative Reasoning

If the average cost of producing one widget decreases from $12.50 to $10.75, what is the percent of the decrease? 1. 10 2. 12.5 3. 14 4. 15 5. 16

Cognitive Ability, Contd

Reasoning ability is actually a diverse set of abilities associated with sensing and solving problems using insight, rules, and logic. Problem sensitivity is the ability to sense that theres a problem or likely will be one. Deductive reasoning refers to the use of general rules to solve problems. Inductive reasoning refers to the ability to consider several specific pieces of information and then reach a more general conclusion regarding how those pieces are related. Originality refers to the ability to develop clever and novel ways to solve problems.

GMAT Critical Reasoning

People should be held accountable for their own behavior, and if holding people accountable for their own behavior entails capital punishment, then so be it. However, no person should be held accountable for behavior over which he or she had no control. Which of the following is the most logical conclusion of the argument above?

People should not be held accountable for the behavior of other people.
a. People have control over their own behavior. b. People cannot control the behavior of other people.

c. Behavior that cannot be controlled should not be punished.

d. People have control over behavior that is subject to capital punishment.

Cognitive Ability, Contd

Spatial ability
Spatial orientation refers to having a good understanding of where one is relative to other things in the environment. Visualization is the ability to imagine how separate things will look if they were put together in a particular way.

Spatial Ability Tests

Which pattern can be folded to make the cube shown?

Cognitive Ability, Contd

Perceptual abilities generally refer to being able to perceive, understand, and recall patterns of information.
Speed and flexibility of closure refers to being able to pick out a pattern of information quickly in the presence of distracting information, even without all the information present. Perceptual speed refers to being able to examine and compare numbers, letters, and objects quickly.

Cognitive Ability, Contd

People who are high on verbal abilities also tend to be high on reasoning, quantitative, spatial, and perceptual abilities. The most popular explanation for the similarity in the levels of different cognitive abilities within people is that there is a general mental ability sometimes called g or the g factor that underlies or causes all of the more specific cognitive abilities discussed so far.

The Wonderlic Personnel Test

Given the strong relationship between general cognitive ability and job performance, many organizations are using ability tests to hire new employees. Wonderlic Personnel Test is a 12-minute test of general cognitive ability that consists of 50 questions.

Offers recommendations for minimum passing scores for different job families.

Wonderlic Personnel Test

The Wonderlic is given to all football players who College participate in the NFL combine (a requirement for being eligible for the draft) students National average

20

24

29

50

Cognitive Ability

For NFL players taking the Wonderlic, the closer you are to the ball, the higher your score
Offensive tackles: 26 Centers: 25 Quarterbacks: 24 Guards: 23 Tight Ends: 22 Safeties: 19 Linebackers: 19 Cornerbacks: 18 Wide receivers: 17 Running backs: 16

Cognitive Ability

Cognitive Ability

Think of the people you know who are exceptionally smart. Are all of them successful? Those who are not successfulwhy arent they? What holds them back?

Emotional Intelligence

Capabilities related to the management and use of emotions when interacting with others
Sometimes labeled EQ or EI Especially vital in jobs that require a lot of emotional labor Comes in four varieties

Self Awareness

Other Awareness

Emotion Use

Emotion Regulation

19 19 19 19

Emotional Intelligence

Self awareness
The ability of an individual to understand the types of emotions he/she is experiencing, the willingness to acknowledge them, and the capability to express them accurately
Whats your score?

Emotional Intelligence

Other awareness
The ability of an individual to recognize and understand the emotions that other individuals are feeling
Whats your score?

Other Awareness
Find a partner, and position your chairs so that you can see your partners face, but only one of you can see the screen. A series of emotions will appear on the screen. The partner that can see the screen should act out that emotion, using facial expressions and gestures. The other partner guesses the emotion.

Excited

Relaxed

Confused

Terrified

Interested

Bored

Emotional Intelligence

Emotion regulation
The ability to quickly recover from emotional experiences and control ones feelings
Whats your score?

Emotional Intelligence

Use of emotions
The ability of an individual to harness emotions and use them to improve their chances of being successful in a given area
Whats your score?

Emotional Intelligence

Sherlock Holmes
How would you describe Holmess cognitive ability? What about his emotional intelligence?

Break!

191

Physical Abilities
Strength is the degree to which the body is capable of exerting force.
Static strength refers to the ability to lift, push, or pull very heavy objects using the hands, arms, legs, shoulder, or back. Explosive strength happens when the person exerts short bursts of energy to move him- or herself or an object. Dynamic strength refers to the ability to exert force for a prolonged period of time without becoming overly fatigued and giving out.

Physical Abilities, Contd

Stamina refers to the ability of a persons lungs and circulatory system to work efficiently while he or she is engaging in prolonged physical activity.

Physical Abilities, Contd

Flexibility refers to the ability to bend, stretch, twist, or reach. Extent flexibility is when people need to work in a cramped compartment or an awkward position. Dynamic flexibility happens when a job requires repeated and somewhat quick bends, stretches, twists, or reaches. Gross body coordination refers to the ability to synchronize the movements of the body, arms, and legs to do something while the whole body is in motion. Gross body equilibrium involves the ability to maintain the balance of the body in unstable contexts or when the person has to change directions.

Physical Abilities, Contd

Psychomotor abilities generally refer to the capacity to manipulate and control objects. Fine manipulative abilities refer to the ability to keep the arms and hands steady while using the hands to do precise work. Control movement abilities are important in tasks for which people have to make different precise adjustments using machinery to complete the work effectively. Response orientation refers to the ability to choose the right action quickly in response to several different signals. Response time reflects how quickly an individual responds to signaling information after it occurs.

Physical Abilities, Contd

Sensory abilities refer to capabilities associated with vision and hearing.

Near and far vision is the ability to see things up close and at a distance or in low light contexts (night vision). Visual color discrimination and depth perception is the ability to perceive colors and judge relative distances between things accurately.

Physical Abilities, Contd

Sensory abilities, continued
Hearing sensitivity is the capability to hear and discriminate sounds that vary in terms of loudness and pitch. Auditory attention is being able to focus on a single sound in the presence of many other sounds. Speech recognition is the ability to identify and understand the speech of another person.

Physical Ability

Importance varies according to the nature of the job

Strength Stamina Flexibility and coordination

Psychomotor
Sensory

Analyzing Ronaldo

199

How Important is Ability?

Teams: Characteristics and Diversity

Chapter 11

Class Agenda

Teams defined
Team types Variations within team types Team interdependence

Team composition
Best practices

What Characteristics Can Be Used to Describe Teams?

Team Characteristics

A team consists of two or more people who work interdependently over some time period to accomplish common goals related to some task-oriented purpose.
A special type of group. The interactions among members within teams revolve around a deeper dependence on one another than the interactions within groups. The interactions within teams occur with a specific taskrelated purpose in mind.

Types of Teams

Variations within Team Types

Virtual teams are teams in which the members are geographically dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through electronic communicationsprimarily email, instant messaging, and Web conferencing

Stages of Team Development

Stages of Team Development

Team Interdependence

Task interdependence refers the degree to which team members interact with and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources needed to accomplish work for the team

Task Interdependence

Pooled interdependence requires lowest degree of required coordination, members complete their work assignments independently, and then this work is simply piled up to represent the groups output.

Task Interdependence, Contd

Sequential interdependence requires different tasks to be done in a prescribed order, interact to carry out their work, the interaction only occurs between members who perform tasks that are next to each other in the sequence.

Task Interdependence, Contd

Reciprocal interdependence requires specialized members to perform specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, members interact with a subset of other members to complete the teams work.

Task Interdependence, Contd

Comprehensive interdependence requires the highest level of interaction and coordination among members. Each member has a great deal of discretion in terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the collaboration involved in accomplishing the teams work.

Pooled

Sequential

Reciprocal

Comprehensive

Task Interdependence

Goal and Outcome Interdependence

A high degree of goal interdependence exists when team members have a shared vision of the teams goal and align their individual goals with that vision as a result. A high degree of outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns.
Pay, bonuses, formal feedback and recognition, pats on the back, extra time off, and continued team survival

Goal and Outcome Interdependence

What kind(s) of interdependence does Coach Carter create for his team? What are some advantages of working interdependently? What are some disadvantages?

Team Interdependence

Outcome interdependence exists when team members share in the rewards that the team earns

Task Interdependence

Goal Interdependence

Outcome Interdependence

14 14 14

Team Composition

Member Roles

Member Ability
Member ability team members provide a wide array of abilities, both physical and cognitive. Disjunctive tasks are tasks with an objectively verifiable best solution, and the member who possesses the highest level of the ability relevant to the task will have the most influence on the effectiveness of the team. Conjunctive tasks are tasks where the teams performance depends on the abilities of the weakest link. Additive tasks are tasks for which the contributions resulting from the abilities of every member add up to determine team performance.

Member Personality

Three traits are especially critical in teams:

Agreeable people tend to be more cooperative and trusting, tendencies that promote positive attitudes about the team and smooth interpersonal interactions. Conscientious people tend to be dependable and work hard to achieve goals. Extraverted people tend to perform more effectively in interpersonal contexts and are more positive and optimistic in general.

Team Diversity

Degree to which members are different from one another in terms of any attribute that might be used by someone as a basis of categorizing people.
Value in diversity problem-solving approach Similarity-attraction approach Surface-level diversity Deep-level diversity

Team Size

Having a greater number of members is beneficial for management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks. Research concluded that team members tend to be most satisfied with their team when the number of members is between 4 and 5.

Inception: Teams

Inception
What type of team is this? What stage of team development is this?

Type of task and interdependence?

What Characteristics Can Be Used to Describe Teams?

Team Types Team Composition

Task Interdependence

Goal Interdependence

Outcome Interdependence

Team Composition

Outcome Interdependence

Task Interdependence

Team Types

Goal Interdependence

How Important Are Team Characteristics?

Break

232

Team Processes

Team Processes

Team process is a term that reflects the different types of activities and interactions that occur within teams and contribute to their ultimate end goals. Team characteristics, like member diversity, task interdependence, team size, and so forth, affect team processes. Team processes, in turn, have a strong impact on team effectiveness.

Team Value

Process gain is getting more from the team than you would expect according to the capabilities of its individual members. Process loss is getting less from the team than you would expect based on the capabilities of its individual members.

Effects of Group Processes

= MINUS

Goal: Maximize Process Gains While Minimizing Process Losses!

Process Losses

Coordination loss consumes time and energy that could otherwise be devoted to task activity. Motivational loss is the loss in team productivity that occurs when team members do not work as hard as they could.

Amount of individual effort expended

Motivation Losses in Teams

The greater the number of people who work on a group task, the smaller the contribution any one member of the group will make

One person Small groups working alone

Large groups

(Greenberg, 1996)

Taskwork Processes

Taskwork processes are the activities of team members that relate directly to the accomplishment of team tasks.
When teams engage in creative behavior, their activities are focused on generating novel and useful ideas and solutions. Brainstorming involves a face-to-face meeting of team members in which each offers as many ideas as possible about some focal problem or issue. Nominal group technique is similar to a traditional brainstorming session, but it makes people write down ideas on their own, thereby decreasing social loafing and production blocking.

Taskwork Processes, Contd

Decision Making
Decision informity reflects whether members possess adequate information about their own task responsibilities.
Staff validity refers to the degree to which members make good recommendations to the leader. Hierarchical sensitivity reflects the degree to which the leader effectively weighs the recommendations of the members.

Taskwork Processes, Contd

Boundary Spanning involves activities with individuals and groups other than those who are considered part of the team. Ambassador activities refer to communications that are intended to protect the team, persuade others to support the team, or obtain important resources for the team. Task coordinator activities involve communications that are intended to coordinate taskrelated issues with people or groups in other functional areas. Scout activities refer to things team members do to obtain information about technology, competitors, or the broader marketplace.

Teamwork Processes
Transition processes are teamwork activities that focus on preparation for future work.

Teamwork processes refer to the interpersonal activities that facilitate the accomplishment of the teams work but do not directly involve task accomplishment itself. Behaviors that create the setting or context in which taskwork can be carried out. Transition processes, action processes, interpersonal processes

Mission analysis, strategy formulation, goal specification

Action processes are important as the taskwork is being accomplished. Monitoring progress toward goals, coordination

Teamwork Processes, Contd

Interpersonal processes are important before, during, or in between periods of taskwork. Motivating and confidence building refers to things team members do or say that affect the Conflictdegree management involves activities that the team uses to which members are motivated to work to manage conflicts arise in the course of its work. hard on thethat task.
Relationship conflict refers to disagreements among team members in terms of interpersonal relationships or incompatibilities with respect to personal values or preferences. Task conflict refers to disagreements among members about the teams task.

Effects of Conflict on Task Performance

High Task Conflict

Low Low Degree of Conflict High

Task Performance

Relationship Conflict

Team States

Team states refer to specific types of feelings and thoughts that coalesce in the minds of team members as a consequence of their experience working together. Cohesion, potency, mental models, transactive memory

Team States, Contd

Cohesion happens when members of teams develop strong emotional bonds to other members of their team and to the team itself. Groupthink happens in highly cohesive teams when members may try to maintain harmony by striving toward consensus on issues without ever offering, seeking, or seriously considering alternative viewpoints and perspectives.

Avoid too much cohesion by assessing the teams cohesion, and appointing a devils advocate.

Team States, Contd

Potency refers to the degree to which members believe that the team can be effective across a variety of situations and tasks. High potency, members are confident that their team can perform well, and as a consequence, they focus more of their energy on achieving team goals.

Team members confidence in their own capabilities, their trust in other members capabilities, and feedback about past performance play a role in developing high potency.

Team States, Contd

Mental models refer to the level of common understanding among team members with regard to important aspects of the team and its task. Transactive memory refers to how specialized knowledge is distributed among members in a manner that results in an effective system of memory for the team.

Importance of Team Processes

Teamwork processes have a moderate positive relationship with team performance. Teamwork processes have a strong positive relationship with team commitment.

Teams that engage in effective teamwork processes tend to continue to exist together into the future.
People tend to be satisfied in teams in which there are effective interpersonal interactions.

Effects of Teamwork Process on Performance and Commitment

Are Teams Good?

Disadvantages
Time consuming Conflict, disagreement Free riding (social loafing)

Advantages
Breadth of information Diversity of perspectives Social facilitation Legitimacy of process Commitment to solution

Danger of conformity
Lack of coordination

Application: (When) Are Teams Good?

Team decision-making results in better outcomes ...
1. Complex tasks 2. Novel, unfamiliar tasks 3. Division of labor is possible 4. Creativity and innovation are essential 5. Cooperation or buy-in are required

Individual decisionmaking may be more efficient ...

1. Relatively simple tasks 2. Routine, familiar tasks 3. No division of labor 4. Following traditional rules, norms, or precedents 5. No cooperation or buy-in is required

Training Teams
Taken together, knowledge, skills, and abilities are referred to as transportable teamwork competences. Trainees can transport what they learn about teamwork from one team context and apply it in another. Examples Conflict Resolution Collaborative Problem Solving Communications Goal Setting and Performance Management Planning and Task Coordination

Training Teams, Contd

Cross-training involves training members in the duties and responsibilities of their teammates.
Personal clarification happens when members simply receive information regarding the roles of the other team members. Positional modeling involves team members observing how other members perform their roles. Positional rotation gives members actual experience carrying out the responsibilities of their teammates.

Training Teams, Contd

Team process training occurs in the context of a team experience that facilitates the team being able to function and perform more effectively as an intact unit.
Action learning happens when a team is given a real problem that is relevant to the organization and then held accountable for analyzing the problem, developing an action plan, and finally carrying out the action plan. A second type of team process training involves experience in a team context when there are task demands that highlight the importance of effective teamwork processes.

Training Teams, Contd

Team building training is intended to facilitate the development of team processes related to goal setting, interpersonal relations, problem solving, and role clarification.
Ropes course, laser tag, paint ball, scavenger hunts Team building is most likely to have positive effects for smaller teams and when the exercise emphasizes the importance of clarifying role responsibilities.

Assignment 8: T for Teamwork

1. What are the challenges facing the struggling real estate agency? 2. Discuss taskwork and teamwork processes demonstrated by the employees. 3. Discuss team states experienced by the employees. 4. What training strategies did Mr. T use? 5. Would you recommend other strategies or training to help this team? Explain why you believe the strategy/strategies you chose would be effective.
See figure 12-4 on pg. 422 for breakdown of team processes