Organized by

IE student Chapter
National Engineering college.




A Review of Electronics and circuit
troubleshooting
By

B.VENKATASAMY
A.P/Electrical and Electronics Engineering
National Engineering College
A Review of Electronics and circuit
troubleshooting
Basics about electronics
Major electronic components
Applications of the components
Basic electronic circuits
Testing of electronic components
Handling LAB equipments
Recent advancements in electronics

Electricity
Everything is made of atoms
Atom consists of electrons, protons,
and neutrons
Every neutral atom has balanced one
(i.e. No of protons= No of Electrons)
That neutral atom does not create
any electricity
excess of electrons is called a
negative charge (-).
A shortage of electrons is called a
positive charge (+).

Electronics
A branch of engineering study which deals with the flow of current
through semiconductor
Electrically, all materials fall into 1 of 3 classifications
Conductors
Insulators
Semi-Conductors


Conductors
Have 1 valence electron
Materials in which electrons can move freely from atom
to atom are called conductors.
In general all metals are good conductors.
The purpose of conductors is to allow electrical current
to flow with minimum resistance.
Insulators
Have 8 valence electrons
Materials in which electrons tend to stay put and do not
flow easily from atom to atom are termed insulators.
Insulators are used to prevent the flow of electricity.
Insulating materials such as glass, rubber, or plastic are
also called dielectrics, meaning they can store charges.
Dielectric materials are used in components like
capacitors which must store electric charges.
Semi-Conductors
Have 4 valence electrons
Materials which are neither conductors nor insulators
Common semi conductor materials are carbon,
germanium and silicone.
P-Type martial (majority of Holes)
N-Type material (majority of electrons)


Major electronic components
Passive components (R, L,C)
PN junction diode
Zener Diode
Skotkey diode
Transistor
JFET
SCR/Thyristors
MOSFETs and IGBT etc
Display Devices(LED, LCD, 7 segment displays)



Major electronic components
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Analog ICs
Operational amplifier (IC 741)
Timer(555)
Voltage regulators
Phase locked Loop(PLL)
Audio Amplifiers
Opto-couplers
Driver/Buffer









Digital ICs
Logic gates
Flip-flops
Counters
Encoder , decoder
ADC
DAC
Microprocessors
Embedded system





Resistors
Resistors can be either fixed or
variable in value
Fixed resistors come in a
variety of different shapes,
sizes and forms
Axial lead resistors have the
value of resistance printed on
them or as a colour code
Surface mount resistors have a
numerical code indicating a
value
All resistors have a tolerance
value


Resistors
Variable resistors are
called potentiometers
There is a fixed value
of resistance between
two terminals
The moving part of the
potentiometer is called
the wiper



Resistors
Four band resistor
colour code
1st band provides the
first digit of the code
2nd band provides the
second digit of the
code
3rd band is the
multiplier
4th band indicates the
tolerance value


Inductors
An inductor is a circuit element that
develops a magnetic field as current
flows through it. This field resists
and slows the movement of
electrons in the inductor.

Most inductors consist of coiled
wire.

Capacitance
Battery
Capacitor
Unit = Farad

Pico Farad - pF = 10
-12
F
Micro Farad - uF = 10
-6
F
A capacitor is used to store charge for a short amount of time
Capacitors
Types of capacitors
The dielectric material
determines the type of
capacitor
Common types of
capacitors are:

Mica
Ceramic
Plastic film
Electrolytic

Capacitors
Some capacitors are
polarised, they can
only be connected one
way around

Electrolytic capacitors
are polarised

Capacitors
Variable capacitors are
used in communication
equipment, radios,
televisions and VCRs

They can be adjusted by
consumers by tuning
controls

Trimmers are internal
adjusted capacitors that a
consumer cannot adjust
The PN Junction
Depletion Layer

P
n

- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
Metallurgical
Junction
Space Charge
Region

Or
Depletion Layer
ionized
acceptors
ionized
donors
Properties of Diodes
The Diode VI Characteristics

V
D
= Bias Voltage
I
D
= Current through
Diode
I
S
= Saturation
Current- leakage
V
BR
= Rev.
Breakdown Voltage
V
|
= Barrier Potential
Voltage

V
D
I
D
(mA)
(nA)
V
BR
~V
|

I
S
Common Diode Applications
Basic Power Supply Circuits
Power Supply
A group of circuits used to convert ac to dc.
Rectifier Converts ac to pulsating dc.
Filter Reduces variations in the rectifier
output.
Voltage regulator Maintains a constant
dc output voltage.
Transformers
Transformers are described in terms of the
relationship between secondary voltage (V
S
) and
primary voltage (V
P
).
Step-up V
S
is greater than V
P
.
Step-down V
S
is less than V
P
.
Isolation V
S
is approximately
equal to V
P
.
Half-wave Rectifiers
Half-wave rectifier A diode placed in series
between a transformer (or ac line input) and
its load.
Positive Half-wave Rectifiers
This circuit converts
an ac input to a
series of positive
pulses.
Full-wave Rectifier Operation
Diodes conduct during
alternate half cycles of
the input signal.
V
L(pk)
is approximately
half the value of V
S(pk)
.

The circuit produces
two positive half-cycles
for each input cycle.
Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers
The most commonly used because:
It does not require the use of a center-tapped
transformer.
It can be coupled directly to the ac power line.
It produces a higher dc output than a comparable
full-wave center-tapped rectifier.
Bridge Rectifier Operation
Conduction alternates between two diode
pairs.
Filters
A filter reduces the voltage and current
variations
in the output from a rectifier.
Ripple Voltage (V
r
)
Ripple voltage (V
r
) The variation in the filter
output voltage.
The Basic Capacitive Filter
The capacitor:
charges through
the rectifier
diode.
discharges
through the load.
1
1 1
5
5
C R T
C R T
L D
D C
=
=
Other Applications

Clipper
Clamper
Switches
Voltage Doublers

Zener Diode
Conducts In Forward Bias same as Diode
Conducts Reverse Bias and Voltage Across it Becomes Constant
after the conduction

Always Reverse biased

Voltage Regulators
Voltage regulator The final circuit in the dc
power supply.
Regulator Response to
Load Variations
A Basic DC Power Supply
Skotkey diode
High speed diode
Low on state voltage and power drop
Bi-Polar Junction Transistor
Circuit Configuration
Transistor Configurations
Common Base:
Gain =IC/ IE ; = /(1+ )
Common Emitter:
Gain =IC/ IB ; =/(1- )
Common Emitter:
Gain = IE/ IB ; =1/(1- ) ; =(+1)


Operation Mode
Circuit Symbols
42
Amplifier operation.
R
B
R
C
Q
1
V
CC
V
B(ac)
I
B(ac)
V
CE(ac)
I
C(ac)
Optimum Q-point with amplifier
operation

C B
I I =
CE CC C C
V V I R =
V
CE
I
B
= 0 A
I
B
= 10 A
I
B
= 20 A
I
B
= 30 A
I
B
= 40 A
I
B
= 50 A
I
C
Q-Point
V
CC
V
CC
/2
I
C(sat)
I
C(sat)
/2
I
B
44
Base bias (fixed bias).
CC BE
B
B
V V
I
R

C B
I I =
CE CC C C
V V I R =
R
C
R
B
+0.7 V
I
C
I
B
I
E
Input
Output
V
BE
V
CC
Q
1
| = dc current gain = h
FE

Voltage divider bias
R
1
R
2
R
E
R
C
+V
CC
Input
Output
I
1
I
2
I
E
I
B
I
C
Assume that I
2
> 10I
B
.
2
1 2
B CC
R
V V
R R
=
+
0.7V
E B
V V =
E
E
E
V
I
R
=
Assume that I
CQ
~ I
E
(or
h
FE
>> 1). Then
( )
CEQ CC CQ C E
V V I R R = +
Amplifier Frequency Response
f (Hz)
A
p
A
p(mid)
0.5A
p(mid)
f
C1
f
C2
Bandwidth
f
0
(log scale)
FET = Field Effect Transistor the flow of charge
carriers is influenced by electric field

transversal
field is used to
control
Channel
JUNCTION FET: depletion layers of pn-
junctions close the channel
Unipolar device: current is conducted by majority carriers
Power needed for controlling the device ~ 0
Most important parameter:
pinch-off voltage
Flow
depletion layer
The JFET


Characteristics:
controlled resistor (see
later the triode region of
MOSFETs)
pinch off voltage
no saturation
saturation




JFET (n-channel) Biasing Circuits
2
1
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
P
GS
DSS DS
V
V
I I
0 , = = = + =
G GS GS G G GG
I Fixed V V R I V
D DS DD DS
P
GS
DSS DS
R I V V
V
V
I I
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
and
1
2
S
GS
DS
S DS GS
R
V
I
R I V
=
= + 0
For Self Bias Circuit
For Fixed Bias Circuit
Applying KVL to gate circuit we get
Where, V
p
=V
GS-off
& I
DSS
is Short ckt. I
DS
SCR / Thyristor
Anode and Cathode
terminals as
conventional pn
junction diode

Gate terminal for a
controlling input signal
SCR
2N3668
ANODE
CATHODE
GATE
SCR / Thyristor
4-layer (pnpn) device

Anode, Cathode as for
a conventional pn
junction diode

Cathode Gate brought
out for controlling
input


P
N
P
N
Anode
Cathode
Gate
SCR Application Power Control
When the voltage across
the capacitor reaches the
trigger-point voltage of
the device, the SCR turns
ON, current flows in the
Load for the remainder of
the positive half-cycle.

Current flow stops when
the applied voltage goes
negative.
Rload
15ohm
60%
25kOhm
Key = a
R
C
0.01uF
Vs
170V
120.21V_rms
60Hz
0Deg
A B
T
G
XSC1
D1
2N1776
Input / Output Voltages
LED & IR LED
Cathode
Anode
LCD
7 Segment Display
Common Anode

Common Cathode Display
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
What does an AMPLIFIER do?

What is an IC?
What can you do with Op amps?
You can make music louder when they are
used in stereo equipment.

You can amplify the heartbeat by using
them in medical cardiographs.

You can use them as comparators in heating
systems.

You can use them for Math operations like
summing, integration etc.


OP-AMP (operational amplifier)
An OP-AMP is an integrated circuit (IC)
used for amplification of signals.

It is the most widely used analog IC.

It is used in control systems,
instrumentation, signal processing etc
Operational Amplifier
The Operational Amplifier or "op-amp" is
an amplifier with two inputs and one
output.

One input is the inverting input and the
other is a non inverting input.
OP-AMP BLOCK DIAGRAM





Inverting
Input (- V
IN
)
+
V


-
V



Outpu
t
Noninvertin
g Input (+
V
IN
)
Differential
Amplifier

Voltage
Amplifier
Output
Amplifier
OP-AMP CHARACTERISTICS

1. Very high input impedance
2. Very high gain
3. Very low output impedance

OP-AMP is a differential,
voltage amplifier with high gain.

OP-AMP is a differential, voltage amplifier
with high gain. Why????
Differential Amplifier: Because it amplifies the
difference between 2 voltages

Voltage Amplifier: Because input and output are
voltages

High Gain Amplifier: Because the voltage gain is
very high (> 100,000)
The 741 Op-amp
The most common op-amp is the 741 IC.
OP-AMP pins identification

Figure 3 Op Amp pins Identification
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
+V
CC
-V
EE
-
+
741
b) Notched Package
1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
+V
CC
-V
EE
-
+
a) Dot marked Package
What are these pins?

1
2
3
4 5
6
7
8
1. Offset Null
-V
EE
8. N / C
6.Output
741
7. +V
CC
3. Noninverting Input +V
IN
2. Inverting Input V
IN


5.Offset Null
Most Op Amps require dual power supply
with common ground
Positive Supply (+15V) to pin7

Negative Supply (-15V) to pin4


-V
IN
+
-
+V
IN
V
OUT
+V
S
-V
S
7
4
Common Ground
Some Op Amps work on single supply also

-V
IN
+
-
+V
IN
V
OUT
-V
S
7
4
-V
IN
+
-
+V
IN
V
OUT
+V
S
7
4
(a) Single Positive Voltage (b) Single Negative Voltage
What is dual power supply?

Single Power Supply Single Power Supply
Figure 18 Dual Power Supply
Common
+15V 15V
Inverting Amplifier Analysis
virtual ground
Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis
Op-Amp Buffer
Vout = Vin
Isolates loading effects
A

High output
impedance
B

Low input
impedance
Op-Amp Differentiator
Op-Amp Integrator
Op-Amp Summing Amplifier
Op-Amp Differential Amplifier
If R
1
= R
2
and R
f
= R
g
:
Applications of Op-Amps
Filters
Types:
Low pass filter
High pass filter
Band pass filter
Cascading (2 or more filters connected
together)
R
2
+
-

+

V
0

__


+ V
cc

- V
cc

-
+

R
1

C
Low pass filter
Low pass filter Cutoff
frequency
Low pass filter transfer
function
Applications of Op-Amps
Electrocardiogram (EKG) Amplification
Need to measure difference in voltage from
lead 1 and lead 2
60 Hz interference from electrical equipment
Applications of Op-Amps
Simple EKG circuit

Uses differential amplifier to
cancel common mode signal
and amplify differential
mode signal

Realistic EKG circuit

Uses two non-inverting
amplifiers to first amplify
voltage from each lead,
followed by differential
amplifier
Forms an instrumentation
amplifier
Goal is to have V
SET
= V
OUT

Remember that V
ERROR
= V
SET
V
SENSOR
Output Process uses V
ERROR
from the PID controller to
adjust V
out
such that it is ~V
SET

P


I


D

Output
Process
Sensor
V
ERROR

V
SET

V
OUT

V
SENSOR

PID Controller System Block Diagram
Applications
PID Controller System Circuit Diagram
Calculates V
ERROR
= -(V
SET
+ V
SENSOR
)
Signal conditioning allows you to
introduce a time delay which could
account for things like inertia
System to control
-V
SENSOR

Applications
PID Controller PID Controller Circuit Diagram
Adjust Change
K
p
RP1, RP2
K
i
RI, CI
K
d
RD, CD
V
ERR PID
Applications of Op-Amps
Voltage Error Circuit:



Proportional-Integral
Control Circuit:
Example of PI Control: Temperature Control

What is a 555 Timer?
The 555 timer is an 8-pin IC that is capable
of producing accurate time delays and/or
oscillators.

In the time delay mode, the delay is
controlled by one external resistor and
capacitor.

In the oscillator mode, the frequency of
oscillation and duty cycle are both
controlled with two external resistors and
one capacitor.

This presentation will discuss how to use a
555 timer in the oscillator mode.
85
555 Mono stable multivibrator
555 Astable multivibrator
555 Schmitt trigger
An ExampleAutomatic street light control

Adjustable Voltage regulator
IC Voltage Regulator(78XX)
Low power amplifier
10W amplifier
100W multistage amplifier
Opto-Couplers
Buffer/ Driver IC
Testing of Components- Diode
Testing of Diode
THANK YOU
Testing of Transistor
Testing of FET
Testing of FET
Check the power supply Voltage (EB) 230 V
Identify the circuit whether correct or not
Check the connections well
Check the components good or bad
Check the measuring equipments like CRO, RPS..etc
Check the ground connection is properly given
If using Trainer kit, check all the supply voltage like
+5. -5, +12,& -12 V and clock etc

CRO- Operating procedure
CRO- Operating procedure
Relay And Driver
A sample circuit
Thank You