Heat Transfer With Phase Change 2014

HEAT TRANSFER WITH
PHASE CHANGE
1. Nuclear Heat Transport by El-Wakil
2. Nuclear Systems 1 & 2 by Kazimi
BASIC CONCEPTS & TERMINOLOGIES -1
Why heat transfer with phase change is important in nuclear reactors ?
Liquids are subjected to high heat fluxes. Resulting in
1. Liquids attaining saturation or superheated temperatures
2. Causing liquids to boil due to phase change
3. Causing dissolved gases to come out of the liquid forming bubbles
4. Causing other phenomena which generate bubbles
1. This bubble formation cause agitation and turbulence, resulting in
1. High heat transfer rates a benefit
2. Void are formed, undesirable in nuclear reactors, affects moderation
3. Heat fluxes, limited due to burnout (leading to structural instability)
2. Hence, an in-depth knowledge of phase-change behavior of
working fluid can result in better performance of nuclear reactors
1. Two-phase coolant thermal conditions in accidental loss of coolant
2. Provision of sufficient safety margin between anticipated transient
heat fluxes and critical boiling heat fluxes
TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE PHASE CHANGE PROCESSES
VAPORIZATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors

EVAPORATION
Conversion of liquid into vapors below boiling point
BOILING
Formation of vapors within a liquid phase at and above boiling point
TWO-PHASE FLOW
Where both the vapor and liquid move together in a channel
CONDENSATION
Reverse of evaporation
CLASSI FI CATI ON OF BOI LI NG
BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON
BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING
BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS OF FLUID
POOL BOILING
NON FLOW
VOLUME OR BULK BOILING
CAN BE NON FLOW
OR FLOW BOILING
BASED ON THE LOCATION OF BOILING PHENOMENON
Boiling due to heat added to the
liquid by a surface in contact with
or submerged within the liquid
Boiling due to heat generation
within the liquid by chemical
or nuclear reaction
NUCLEATE BOILING FILM BOILING
BASED ON THE MECHANISM OF BOILING
bubbles are formed around a
small nucleus of vapors or gas
there is a formation of a
continuous film of vapor that
blankets the heating surface
Partial film boiling, Partial nucleate boiling, Transition film boiling,
Unstable nucleate film boiling etc.
pool nucleate boiling or
volume nucleate boiling
there is only pool film boiling rather
than volume film boiling
Under certain conditions nucleate and film boiling coexist
SATURATED BOILING SUBCOOLED BOILING
BASED ON THE TEMPERATURE OF LIQUID
bulk of the liquid is at
saturation temperature
bulk of the liquid is subcooled
In saturated boiling, the
bubbles rise to the liquid
surface where they are
detached
In sub-cooled boiling, the bubbles
begin to rise but may collapse before
they reach the liquid surface
.
An important
point
to generate bubbles the heating surface must be at
temperature > saturation, consequently some of the liquid
immediately adjacent to that surface, is superheated
HENCE
BOTH SATURATED AND SUBCOOLED BOILING CAN BE
NUCLEATE OR FILM BOILING
WHEREAS VOLUME OR BULK BOILING CAN ONLY BE
SATURATED BOILING
TWO-PHASE FLOW CLASSIFICATION
DIABATIC
WITH BOILING
ADIABATIC
WITHOUT BOILING
BASED ON HEAT TRANSFER
Single component flow
Water and steam
Two component flow
Water and air
BASED ON COMPONENTS
IN BOTH THESE TYPES OF TWO PHASE FLOW
1. Vapor and liquid flow at different velocities
2. Vapors normally flow faster than liquid
3. The ratio of their velocities is called slip ratio
BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -1
BUBBLE FORMATION REQUIRES LIQUID SUPERHEAT
(to what degree later)
Bubble Formation Aided By So Called Nucleation Aids
1. DISSOLVED GASES OR VAPORS PRESENT IN LIQUID
Prominent in nuclear reactors
Charged particles presence in bubbles aid bubble motion
h in BWR > h in conventional boilers
1. CAVITIES OR CREVICES ON THE SOLID SURFACE
Never completely filled due to surface tension
Retain gases
Centers of high temperature
the presence of ionization radiations
1. WETTING CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID SURFACE

Depends on the interaction of solid, liquid and gas at interface
For a bubble resting on a solid surface there are three interfaces
1. Solid-liquid interface, function of liquid and solid surface properties
2. Liquid-vapor interface, function of liquid and vapor phase properties
3. Solid-vapor interface, function of vapor and solid surface properties
Making a force balance along the surface reveals
cos
gs fs fg
o o o | = +
Term Wetting Always Refer To The Liquid Phase
If | = 90, borderline wetted and unwetted surface
If | > 90, unwetted surface
If | < 90, wetted surface
SURFACES DESIRABLE FOR BUBBLE FORMATION ???
First study Bubble Growth Depends on |
If | > 90, facilitates
bubble grows / larger bubbles
| > 90,
lesser superheat required
| > 90, larger bubbles,
film is readily formed,
Film, lesser heat transfer,
not desired
If | < 90,
More superheat required
| < 90,
Smaller Bubbles
| < 90
Bubble more easily detached
No Film, higher heat
transfer, desired
To form a bubble some degree of superheat is required
(ODD isnt it)
Consider a stable floating bubble of radius r in a saturated liquid
( )
2
4
b f fg
D
p p D
t
t o =
4
fg
b f
p p
D
o
=
Bubble is at thermal equilibrium
T
b
= T
f

But p
b
> p
f
to overcome
the surface tension force
Since p
b
corresponds to at
least T
sat,
Hence, T
f
> T
sat
Liquid is superheated
A force balance reveals
What degree of superheat is required
*
4 2
fg fg
b f
p p
D r
o o
= =
p
g
= vapor pressure of
liquid inside bubble
p
g
= p
b
& T
g
= T
b
vapor pressure and
vapor temperature can be related
using Clausius Clapeyron eq.
( )
fg
sat
sat g f
h
dp
dT
T v v
| |
=
|

\ .
Assume vapors exist
at T
sat
(p
g/b
)

inside
the bubble & v
g
>> v
f
( )
fg
b
b
b g
h
dp
dT
T v
=
using Ideal Gas
relation to get
2
fg
b
b
b b
h
dp
dT
p RT
=
Integrate between limits
of p
b
to p
l
& T
b
to T
sat
1 1
ln
fg
b
l b sat
h
p
p R T T
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
ln
b sat b
b sat
fg l
RT T p
T T
h p
| |
=
|
\ .
*
4 2
fg fg
b f
p p
D r
o o
= =
Combine to get
*
2
ln 1
fg
b sat
b sat
fg f
RT T
T T
h p r
o
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
*
2
fg sat
b sat
fg b
T
T T
h r
o
=
If r
c
~ the order of molecular dimension T
g
T
sat
quite large,
( )
*
2
fg sat
fg g b sat
T
r
h T T
o

For water, predicted T
g
T
sat
~ 220
o
C,
Measured T
g
T
sat
~ 16
o
C
Thanks to dissolved gases, which reduce
required vapor pressure for bubble
mechanical equilibrium, i.e.
4 2
fg fg
g vap f
c
p p p
D r
o o
+ = =
Bubble Detachment
Process
Nucleation at solid surfaces/on suspended bodies , micro-cavities ~ 10
-3

mm at the surfaces act as gas storage volumes
This arrangement allows the vapor to exist in contact with sub-cooled
liquid, provided the angular opening of the crack is small (micro-cavity)
A solid surface contains a large number of micro-cavities with a
distribution in sizes
Boiling at the surface can begin if the T
coolant
near the surface is high
enough that the preexisting vapor at the cavity site may attain sufficient
pressure to initiate the growth of a vapor bubble at that site.
The various stages in the pool boiling curve
Jets and Columns
Film Boiling
BOILING REGIMES
BOILING HEAT TRANSFER - History
1. Nukiyama (1934)
Performed an experiment using an electrically heated platinum wire
immersed in water BOILING CURVE
2. Gaertner (1965)
Vapour structures in nucleate boiling
HOW DO YOU THINK BOILING PHENOMENA GOES AS
TEMPEATURE OF THE HEATING SURFACE CHANGES
SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE -1
Reveals range of conditions associated with saturated pool boiling
Water at Atmospheric Pressure
Little vapor formation.
Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural convection.
Free Convection
( )
5
e
T C A <
Onset of Nucleate Boiling
( )
5
e
ONB T C A ~
Nucleate Boiling
( )
5 30
e
T C A < <
Isolated Vapor Bubbles
( )
5 10
e
T C A < <
- Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation of
bubbles at the surface.
- h and q
s
"
increase sharply with increasing AT
e
- Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid with
the surface (single-phase convection) and not due to
vaporization.
Jets and Columns
( )
10 30
e
T C A < <
- Increasing number of nucleation sites causes bubble interactions and
coalescence into jets and slugs.
- Liquid/surface contact is impaired
- q
s
"
continues to increase with AT
e
while h begins to decrease.
Critical Heat Flux - CHF,
( )
max
30
e
q T C A
''
~
Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.
q
"
max
~ 1 MW/m
2
for water at atmospheric pressure
Potential Burnout for Power-Controlled Heating
Film Boiling
Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapor blanket
A reduction in q
"
s
follows the cooling curve continuously to Leidenfrost
point corresponding to minimum heat flux q
"
min
for film boiling
An increase in q
"
s
beyond q
"
max
causes the surface to be blanketed by
vapors and the surface temperature can spontaneously achieve a value that
potentially exceeds its melting point (T
s
> 1000
o
C)
If the surface survives the temperature shock, conditions are characterized
by film boiling
Saturated Pool Boiling Curve (SPBC) -4
A reduction in q
"
s
below q
"
min
causes an abrupt reduction in surface
temperature to the nucleate boiling regime.
Transition Boiling for Temperature-Controlled Heating
Characterized by a continuous decay of q
"
s
(from q
"
max
to q
"
min

with increasing AT
e

Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and film
boiling, but portion of surface experiencing film
boiling increases with AT
e
Also termed unstable or partial film boiling.
SPBC IN HEAT FLUX CONTROLLED MODE
SATURATED POOL BOILING CURVE - 5
1. As many as three different heating surface temperatures can be
attained at the same heat flux
2. Safer to operate at the lowest possible temperature against the
highest heat flux
3. Thus normal operation is in the region of NUCLEATE BOI LI NG
4. In actual practice q is the independent variable and T
s
is the
dependent variable
5. When q
c
is reached, any further increase in q results in a
temperature jump from C to E

6. Temperature at E normally exceeds the safe surface temperature
limits.
7. The condition is referred as BURNOUT and heat flux is referred as
BURNOUT OR CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

THE FLOW BOILING CURVE - 1
1. Curve a is for the liquid bulk temperature
2. Curve b is for the heating surface temperature at low heat flux
3. Curve b is for the heating surface temperature at high heat flux
4. Rise in T
s
at point of DNB is sudden
5. Height and width of this rise and fall of T
s
depends on many things
BOILING INCIPIENCE
As bulk of coolant heats up, bubbles grow larger, possibility of detachment
from wall surface into flow stream increases region II Z > Z
D

Bubbles detach regularly. Condense slowly as they move through fluid,
vapor voidage penetrates to the fluid bulk Void fraction increases
significantly
Bulk liquid becomes saturated at Z = Z
B
, region III, void fraction
continues to increase, approaching thermal equilibrium condition at Z = Z
E

Beginning of region IV, where the thermodynamic non-equilibrium history
is completely lost
Z = Z
NB
is called the point of boiling incipience, where boiling starts
Sub-cooled boiling begins as nucleate
boiling starts, Z = Z
NB
and T
bulk
< T
sat

For nucleation to occur, T
f
near the
wall must be somewhat > T
sat
Most of liquid is still sub-cooled,
bubbles do not detach but grow &
collapse, attached to the wall, giving a
small nonzero void fraction (region I)
II I
III IV
BOILING INCIPIENCE CRITERION
A criterion for boiling inception (Z = Z
NB
) in forced flow was developed by
Bergles and Rosehsenow
Main Idea: T
liquid
due to the heat flux near the wall = temperature associated
with the required superheat for bubble stability (developed earlier)
Both these temperature change as distance from wall changes
Hence this occurs when the two temperatures tangentially make contact
Liquid temperature & near wall q
//
are related
liq
liq
T T q
q k
r r k
''
c c
''
= =
c c
This gradient = gradient of required superheat
2
fg sat
g sat
fg g c
T
T T
h r
o
=
Take derivative cT/cr
and put this to get the
following
( )
( )
2
8
l fg w sat
i
fg sat fg
k h T T
q
T v o

''
=
BOILING INCIPIENCE CRITERION
At low heat fluxes the point of tangency may be at a radius larger than the
available size cavities in the wall.
In this case , as in natural convection above equation would under predict the
required superheat and (q")
I

Bjorge et al. recommended that a maximum cavity for most surfaces in
contact with water be r
max
=10
-6
m.
When the liquid has a good surface wetting ability , the apparent cavity size
is smaller than the actual size .
( ) ( )
c w sat
i i
q h T T
''
=
Combine
( )
( )
2
8
l fg w sat
i
fg sat fg
k h T T
q
T v o

''
=
( )
( )
2
1
8
l fg w sat
w bulk fg sat fg c
i
k h T T
T T T v h o
= I =
I
THE BURNOUT HEAT FLUX CORRELATIONS - 2
Pool saturated boiling in Nucleate Boiling Region: Clean heating surfaces
THE ROHSENOW CORRELATION
Where, C
sg

1. Dimensionless constant determined
experimentally for various surfaces and fluids
2. 0.0133 (water stainless steel system)
3. Depends on surface wettability
4. Determined by noting q" and AT in a single
experiment
Prs exponent varies from 0.8 to 2 due to the
presence of contaminants
( )
0.33
1
Pr
pf c fg
sg
m
fg f fg
f g
c T g
q
C
h h
g
o

+
(
A
''
(
=
(

1
1
Re Pr
n m
L
f sg
h
Nu
k C

= =
w w
w sat
q q
h
T T T
'' ''
= =
A
( )
L
f g
g
o
Values of constants in the Rohsenows correlation

SATURATED NON FOW BOILING
Rohsenow and Griffith proposed

CHF CORRELATIONS -1
Based on theoretical and experimental analysis
h
fg
in Btu/lbm at system pressure
g
and
f
in lbm/ft
3
saturated densities at system pressures
g
c
conversion factor 4.1710
8
lbm ft /lb
f
hr
2

Effect of g is to increase q
c
" due to increased separation of phases
Optimum pressure to give highest q
c
"~ 1.2 10
6
Btu/lbm ft
2
at 1200
psia
0.6
0.25
143
f g
c fg g
g c
g
q h
g

| |
| |
''
=
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
SUBCOOLED NON FOW POOL BOILING CHF CORRELATIONS
Zuber etal. correlation
Ivey and Morris, correlation
( )
0.25
( )
1 0.1
( )
g pf f wall bulk
c
c f fg g
o
c T T
q subcooled
q saturated h
where temperatues are in F

| | | |
''
= +
| |
| |
''
\ . \ .
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0.25
0.5
1 8
2
( ) 5.3
1
( )
/
f g
c
f pf f
c fg g c
f g c
sat bulk
g
o
o
f
g
q subcooled
k c
q saturated h g
gg
T T
where temperatues are in F
k thermal conductivity of liquid Btu hr ft F

o
o
| |
''
|
= +
| ''
\ .
(
(

(

=
THE PARAMETRIC EFFECT ON POOL CHF -1
EFFECT OF PRESSURE
1. Increases the T
B
,
g
, h
fg
and
2. Shifts the Nucleate Boiling
regime
3. Shifts the CHF
4. CHF increases to a maximum
corresponding to an optimum
pressure and then decreases
5. P
opt
is 33 to 40 % of P
c
of liquid
in question
6. CHF (at increased P) increases
by 4 to 10 times as compared to
CHF at 1 atm
THE PARAMETRIC EFFECT ON POOL CHF -2
Advantage:
1. Operate the System at or near the Optimum Pressure
2. This corresponds to maximum CHF
3. Which in turn gives a much higher safety margin of operation as
well as higher nucleate boiling heat flux
OTHER PARAMETRIC EFFECTS
1. Dirty surfaces give 15% higher CHF as compared to the clean
surfaces corresponding to the same pressure
2. Certain additives (having heavier than liquid molecules) increase
the CHF
3. CHF also increase in the presence of ultrasonic and electrostatic
fields
4. CHF decreases with presence of dissolved gases
5. CHF decreases with agents which reduce surface tension
THE PARAMETRIC EFFECT ON FLOW BOILING -2
Effect of Pressure
1. Rather little effect
2. Effect is same for upward or
downward flow
3. Compare with the pool
boiling curve
Effect of Velocity & Sub-cooling
Degassed distilled water, 4.13 bar
(60 psia), T
sat
= 145C (293F)
(McAdams 1946)
1. No effect of velocity on the
nucleate boiling heat flux for
the same degree of sub-cooling
2. For same velocity increase in
degree of sub-cooling increases
the onset of boiling and CHF
3. For the same degree of sub-
cooling increase in velocity also
increases the onset of boiling
and CHF
Inlet enthalpy
Weatherhead (1963) for a tube
ID of 7.7 mm, length 45.7 cm &
a system pressure of 2000 psia
Increases approx linearly with
the inlet sub-cooling
This relationship occurs over
fairly wide ranges
Has no fundamental
significance, except to indicate
that more energy goes into
saturating the fluid.
If a very wide range of inlet
sub-cooling is used, then
departures from linearity are
observed.
difference in enthalpy between
saturated liquid and inlet liquid
Geometry of the flow passage (For fixed P, G, i
sub
& L)
CHF increases with tube diameter, D
H
the rate of increase, decreases as the diameter increases
Effect of tube Diameter
As the tube diameter is increased, so the critical
heat flux increases at constant inlet sub-cooling.
The relationship between critical heat flux and
Inlet sub-cooling effect is linear for small tube
diameters (D s 1 2.8 mm)
For larger diameters show a marked curvature.
Effect of tube Diameter
Same data plotted against exit quality
Where the data for different tube
diameters
There is an overlap of data for ID >
23.6 mm
It can be seen that the critical heat
flux decreases with increasing tube
diameter for a given exit quality

Effect of heating length (For fixed P, i
sub
, G, & D
H
)
1. CHF decreases with increasing tube length L
2. The power input required for burnout, P
cr
, decreases first rapidly, and
then less rapidly
3. For very long tubes, the critical power appears to asymptote to a
constant value independent of tube length in some cases.
4. This only applies over a limited range of length
Effect of heating length
1. Lee and Obertelli (1963) and Lee (1965)
reported data for a pressure of 69 bar
(1000 psia), a mass velocity of 2000
kg/m
2
s (1.5 x 10
6
lb/hr.ft
2
) and a tube
diameter in the range of 10.75-10.85 mm
(0.424-0.426 in)
2. Data shows the variation of CHF with
length and sub-cooling for fixed mass
velocity & tube diameter
3. CHF increases as tube length is
decreased for constant inlet sub-cooling
4. For longer lengths (z > 1 m) the
relationship between heat flux and sub-
cooling is linear. This linearity breaks
down for short tubes.
Effect of heating length
1. If their data are re-plotted as CHF vs exit
quality it is seen that the data points for
different lengths all fall on one curve
2. It can be concluded from this observation that
the effect of tube length on the critical heat
flux for fixed exit quality is small.
3. So the observation that CHF is independent of
tube length for a given exit quality can be
interpreted as the tube may be divided into two
lengths;
4. Over the first length the liquid is raised to the
saturation condition
5. Over the second length the quality is raised
from zero to the outlet quality corresponding
to critical condition.
6. The lengths over which these temperature
conditions occur can be found by heat balance
T NB B
H H H = +
( )
''
4
sub
i
NB
CHF
DG h
H
q
A
=
( )
''
4
fg
B
CHF
x H DGh
H
q
=
( ) ( )
''
, , ,
CHF
q f x H G p D =
For a fixed CHF
& exit quality
( )
''
, , ,
CHF B
q f H G p D =
One can also write for if CHF
occurs at the exit location,
( )
,
, , ,
B
H CHF B
x f H G p D =
2 independent equations, very useful as data of CHF can also be represented
independently in terms of x
HB,CHF

A local relationship
between CHF and quality
Mass fraction of the liquid which can be evaporated (x
HB,CHF
) in the channel
before the onset of the critical condition is a function of the length over
which the evaporation takes place, (H
B
)
( )
''
, , ,
CHF B
q f H G p D =
( )
,
, , ,
B
H CHF B
x f H G p D =
Neither of these two formulations of CHF phenomenon is completely correct
For the critical condition in a uniformly heated channel it is impossible to
distinguish between the two independent parameters
Effect of mass flux G (For fixed P, D
H
, L and i
sub
)
CHF rises approximately linearly with G
OTHER PARAMETRIC EFFECTS' ON FLOW BOILING
Type of heat flux
Little effect
Dissolved gasses and additives
Little Effect
Surface roughness
Increases CHF in subcooled flow boiling
Decreases CHF in saturated flow boiling
EFFECT OF PRESENCE OF HEATING WALLS - 1
Presence of unheated walls Near the CHF point, Increases
CHF.
A wide variety of data has been obtained for burnout in
annuli and rod bundles.

1.In the nuclear industry, the main interest is CHF in rod
bundle geometries. The annulus might be regarded as a
"single rod bundle" or "sub-channel.
EFFECT OF PRESENCE OF HEATING WALLS - 2
Most of the data is where the inner surface is
heated.
Data has also been reported where both
surfaces are heated and the fraction of the
power input to the outer surface is varied.
This useful data is reported by Jensen and
Mannov (1974).
For a fixed inlet subcooling, the critical
quality (quality at burnout) initially increases
as the fraction of power on the outer surface
is increased.
In this region, CHF occurs first on the inner
surface.
As the fraction of power on the outer surface
is further increased, a maximum burnout
quality is reached, and beyond this point
burnout begins to occur first on the outer
surface and the critical quality decreases with
increasing fractional power on that surface.
Empirical Correlation Of Experimental Data
The technical importance of the critical heat flux condition has led to the
development of a huge variety of correlations
Milioti (1 964) catalogues fifty-nine correlations and detailed comparisons of a
wide range of correlations reveal considerable differences
Many of the more recent correlations do, however, show fairly reasonable
agreement despite wide variations in their functional form.
Three types of correlating procedure have bee adopted
1. Correlations of an empirical nature which make no assumptions whatever about
the mechanisms involved in the critical heat flux condition, but solely attempt a
functional relationship between the critical heat flux and the independent
variables.
2. Correlations where attempts have been made to look at and write down equations
for the hydrodynamic and heat transfer processes occurring in the heated channel
and to relate these to the critical heat flux condition
3. The USSR Academy of Sciences (Kirillov et al. 1991) has produced a series of
standard tables of CHF as a function of the local bulk mean water condition and
for various pressures and mass velocities for a fixed tube diameter of 0.315 in
(8mm). These tables are valid for z/D > 20. For tube diameters other than 8 mm
the critical heat flux is given by the approximate relationship
Empirical Correlation Of Experimental Data
1. The USSR Academy of Sciences (Kirillov et al. 1991) has produced a series of
standard tables of CHF as a function of the local bulk mean water condition and
for various pressures and mass velocities for a fixed tube diameter of 0.315 in
(8mm). These tables are valid for z/D > 20. For tube diameters other than 8 mm
the critical heat flux is given by the approximate relationship
,8
0.008
k
CHF CHF mm
D
q q
| |
'' '' =
|
\ .
Empirical LOOK-UP TABLES
The ANL correlation, for sub-cooled flow boiling
Represented a large number of experimental data of sub-cooled water
flowing upward through a vertical tube under various operating
conditions, including high pressures.
Range of G:
0.9610
6
to 7.810
6
Degree of subcooling:
5.5

to 163
o
F
Not suitable for
saturated boiling, why
( )
0.22
2 6
10
M
CHF sat f
Btu G
q C T T
hr ft
| |
| |
''
=
| |
\ .
\ .
P C M
500 psia 0.827 0.16
1000 psia 0.626 0.275
2000 psia 0.445 0.5
3000 psia 0.25 0.73
Limitations of use:
1. Steady State
2. Uniform heat flux
3. Vertical up flow in tubes
4. Sub-cooled water in
o
F
5. Interpolate between pressure values
6. Mass flux in lbm/hr ft
2
The Westinghouse Correlation for subcooled flow boiling-1
For uniform heat flux conditions, the Westinghouse, W-3 Correlation
Pressure effect
G effect
Diam effect
Sub-cool effect
Range
of Data
Limitations of Use:
1. Steady State
2. Uniform Heat Flux
3. Tubes or Rod
Bundles
1. 0.5(10
6
) s G s 5.0(10
6
) lbm/hr ft
2
2. 800 s P s 2000 psia
3. 10 s L s 79 inches
4. 0.2 s D
e
s 0.7 inches
5. i
i
> 400 Btu/lbm
6. -0.15 s x
e
s 0.15
( )
( )
( )
( )
| |
( )
6
18.171 0.004129
6
3.151
2.022 0.0004302
10
0.1722 0.0000984
0.1484 0.1596 0.1729 10 1.037
1.157 0.869 0.2664 0.8357
0.8258 0.000794
e
CHF
p x
D
f i
p
q
p e
x x G
x e
h h
(
''
= (
+
(

(
+ +

(
+

(
+

The Westinghouse Correlation for subcooled flow boiling-2
For non-uniform heat flux conditions, divide the previous q
c

by the factor F
Where
C = 0.44(1 x
c
)
7.9
/(G x l0
-6
)
1.72
, in
-i
l
c
=channel length at which DNB takes place, inches
q
lc
= heat flux at l
c
, Btu/hr ft
2
z = variable distance from channel entrance, inches
x
c
=quality at DNB
( )
( )
( )
0
1
''
c
c
c
l
c
l
C l z
Cl
C
F q z e dz
q e

''
=
}
The above correlation correlates most existing heat flux data to
within 20 percent.
General Electric Correlation for Saturated Flow Boiling
GE Correlation
(El-Wakil, 1979)
System pressure
= 1000 psia
where
Range of Data
For system pressure = 1000 but < 1450 psia
( ) ( )
1000 440 1000
CHF CHF
q q at psia p
'' ''
= +
6
1
6 6
1 2
6 6
2
0 705 10 0 237
1 634 10 0 27 4 71 10
0 605 10 0 164 0 654 10
. .
. . .
. . .
e
CHF e e
e e
G x x
q G x x x x
G x x x

+ <

''
= < <
`

>
)
6
1
6
2
0 197 0 108 10
0 254 0 026 10
. .
. .
x G
x G
=
=
6 2
0 1 0 15
600 1450
0 4 6 10
29 108
0 245 1 25
. .
. /
. .
e
x
P psia
G lbm hrft
L inches
D inches
< <
s s
s s
s s
s s
Westinghouse Correlation for Saturated Flow Boiling
Predicts the steam-water enthalpy, h
c
at which burnout is likely to
occur in terms of the inlet enthalpy, h
i
instead of q
CHF
flow in circular, rectangular channels and along rod bundles,
uniform and non-uniform heat flux
a pressure range of 800 to 2,750 psia,
h
i
= 400 Btu /lbm to saturation
G= 0.4 x 10
6
to 2.5 x 10
6
lbm/hr ft
2
local heat flux = 0.1 x 10
6
to 1.8 x 10
6
Btu/hr ft
2
D
e
= 0.1 to 054 in., L = 9 to 76 in
heated-to-wetted-perimeter ratio = 0.88 to 1.0
exit quality = 0 to 0.9.
( ) ( )
5
17 1 5 10
0 0048
0 529 0 825 2 3
0 41 1 12 0 548
.
.
. . .
. . .
e
e
D G
c i f i fg
g L D
fg fg fg
f
h h h h e h e
h e h h
= + + +
+
Correlates most data to
within 25 percent.
Applies for
OTHER CORRELATIONS FOR SATURATERD FLOW BOILING
BIASI Correlation (El-Wakil, 1979)
( )
7
0 032
1 6 1 6
1 883 10
0 724 0 99
.
.
. .
p p
CHF e p
n
H
f
q x where f pe
D G G

(
''
= = +
(

Low
Quality
Region
| |
( )
7
0 019
0 6 2
3 78 10 8 99
1 1 159 0 149
10
.
.
. .
, . .
p
CHF p e p
n
H
p
q f x f pe
D G p
''
= = + +
+
High
Quality
Region
( )
2
1
0 4 1 0 6 1
0 3 3 75 20 600
2 7 140 10 600
1 1
. , .
. . ,
. ,
H H
H
H
e f g
n D cm n D cm
D cm z cm
P bar G g cm s
R x R

= > = s
< < < <
< < < <
< < +
Range of Data
Limitations of use
1. Steady State
3. Water/Up flow or down flow
4. Vertical tubes or Rod Bundles
OTHER CORRELATIONS FOR SATURATED FLOW BOILING
( )
( )
( )
1 3
6
0 4
0 4 6
4
1
10
1 11
62 1 10
.
.
.
fg
CHF exit
cr
r
e
G i
q x
where
P
P
G
P
D G
P
o
|
o
|
''
=
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
=
|
\ .
CISE Correlation (El-Wakil, 1979)
2
2
fg
e
q BTU hrft
i BTU lbm
G lbm hrft
D inches
''
=
=
=
=
Limitations of use
1. Steady State
3. Rod or tube bundles
OTHER CORRELATIONS FOR SATURATED FLOW BOILING
( )
( )
( )
1 3
6
0 4
0 4 6
4
1
10
1 11
62 1 10
.
.
.
fg
CHF exit
cr
r
e
G i
q x
where
P
P
G
P
D G
P
o
|
o
|
''
=
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
=
|
\ .
CISE Correlation (El-Wakil, 1979)
2
2
fg
e
q BTU hrft
i BTU lbm
G lbm hrft
D inches
''
=
=
=
=
Limitations of use
1. Steady State
3. Rod or tube bundles
Some More Subcooled Flow Boiling CHF Correlations
CHF very important in the safety analysis of PWRs
PWRs are designed to operate such that their primary coolant systems
contain pressurized and subcooled water everywhere and at all times
Rules for safe normal operation require that the CHF conditions never be
approached anywhere in the reactor core.
The criterion is represented in terms of a maximum DNBR, (DNB ratio)
max max
1
CHF w
DNBR q q DNBR DNBR
'' ''
= < >
This condition should apply everywhere in the core
Oldest correlation for PWR is that of Tong (1969)
0.4 0.6
0.6
f
CHF
fg
G
q
C
h D
''
=
2
1.76 7.433 12.222
eq eq
C x x = +
Range of Data
2
2
4 0 60 6
15 190
0 1 5 5
2 2 40
12 40
2 5 8 0
CHF
sub exit
heat
q MW m
T K
P MPa
G Mg m s
L D
D mm
''
< <
< A <
< s
< <
< <
< <
,
. . /
. .
. /
/
. .
Celata et al. (1994) improved the accuracy of Tong (1969) correlation
( )
( )
2
1
1
0.216 4.74 10
0.825 0.987 0.1 0
1 0.1
1 2 30 0
eq eq
eq
eq eq
C C P
x for x
C for x
x for x
= +

+ < <

= <
`

+ >

)
Range of Data
3 3 2
90 230
0 1 8 4
2 10 90 10
0 1 0 61
0 3 25 4
sub in
heat
T K
P MPa
G kg m s
L m
D mm
< A <
< s
< <
< <
< <
,
. .
/
. .
. .
The correlations of Hall and Mudawar (2000a,b)
Correlation based on
inlet conditions
( ) ( )
( )
( )
3 5
2
3 5
2
*
1 4
1 4
1
1 4
c c
c
D f g f g in
c c
c
D f g heat
cWe c x
Bo
c c We L D

+
(
(

=
+
Correlation based on
exit conditions
( )
2
*
, ,
, ,
1 2
3 4
5
and are exit properties
0.0722, 0.132,
0.644, 0.90,
0.724
D f
in in f out fg out
f out fg out
We G D
x h h h
h h
c c
c c
c
o =
=
= =
= =
=
( ) ( )
3 5
2
1 4 ,
1
c c
c
D f g f g eq out
Bo cWe c x
(
=
(

Parameter ranges both correlations
0.25mm < D < 1.5 cm,
300 G < 30,000 kg/m
2
s
1 P 200 bars.
For their inlet-conditions correlation, ,
2 < x
eq,in
< 0.0, 1 < x
eq,out
< 0.0, 2
L
heat
/D 200.
BOILING MAPS
Vertical up flow, preferred configuration for boiling channels
As buoyancy helps mixture flow & slip velocity; improved heat transfer
Flow boiling in horizontal, vertical down flow are also of interest
Horizontal boiling channels are not uncommon
Flow boiling in a vertical, downward configuration occur in accident
conditions in PWR type systems, where otherwise liquid up flow occurs
under normal conditions
Under typical boiler liquid in is sub-cooled, heat addition takes it to either
Higher temperatures but sub-cooled (with and without boiling)
Higher by Saturated temperatures with boiling
Even superheated vapour temperatures
Boiling behaviour is all these cases depend on the magnitude of heat flux
Let us discuss these behaviour qualitatively in order to be able to apply
various correlations to predict either heat transfer coefficients or CHF

BOILING MAPS
Development of 2-phase flow patterns in
flow boiling. (Hsu and Graham, 1986.)
Heat transfer, two-phase flow, and
boiling regimes in a vertical tube (up
flow), steady state, constant G and
uniform and moderate heat flux.

Inlet fluid is highly sub-cooled,

Sub-cooled liquid in entire channel
With
, boiling occurs in part of

the channel, exit flow regime =
f(
)
If
is high or low inlet sub-

cooling a complete sequence of
boiling and related two-phase flow
regimes take place in the channel
Boiling starts at ONB point
If inlet fluid is saturated or a
saturated liquidvapor mixture,
boiling and two-phase flow patterns
will be similar to the one shown
BOILING MAPS
Uniformly heated vertical channel with
upward flow and moderate heat flux, with
Sub-cooled fluid at inlet
T
w
& T
f
are shown as a function of height
Near inlet, liquid too sub-cooled, bubble
nucleation not permitted, single phase
flow & forced convection heat transfer
Once boiling is initiated, a sequence of
flow regimes develop
Bubbly, Slug, Annular, Dispersed droplet
flow, finally single-phase vapor flow
Nucleate boiling in bubbly & slug flow
Forced convective evaporation in annular
flow
Extremely efficient heat transfer regime,
heated wall covered by a thin liquid film.
Liquid film is cooled by evaporation at
its surface, hence unable to sustain a
sufficiently large superheat for bubble
nucleation
Two-phase flow and boiling regimes in a
vertical pipe with moderate wall heat flux.
(From Collier and Thome, 1994.)
BOILING MAPS
Droplet entrainment at high vapor flow
rate, leading to dispersed-droplet flow
Liquid film eventually completely
evaporate and lead to dry-out (equivalent
to CHF in pool boiling)
Sustained macroscopic contact between
heated surface & liquid does not occur
downstream from the dry-out point (A
liquid-deficient region)
Sporadic deposition of droplets onto the
surface may take place.
Finally entrained droplets evaporate
completely, pure vapor single-phase flow
h in liquid-deficient region << nucleate
boiling or forced convective evaporation
regimes
Result, occurrence of dry-out with large
temperature rise for the heated surface
Dry-out phenomenon is similar to CHF
discussed for pool boiling
Two-phase flow and boiling regimes in a
vertical pipe with moderate wall heat flux.
(From Collier and Thome, 1994.)
BOILING MAPS
Flow patterns differ from described earlier
Due to high
, ONB occurs bulk liquid is

almost at inlet temperature
Significant Nucleate boiling takes place
downstream of ONB point, leading to increased
voidage
Growing bubbly layer adjacent to wall
eventually form a continuous layer thus
initiating the DNB phenomenon (Departure
from Nucleate Boiling)
Another mechanism similar to pool boiling
CHF
Very high h in sub-cooled boiling regime,
deteriorates very significantly beyond the DNB
point, even though bulk flow in heated channel
may still be highly sub-cooled
Two-phase flow & boiling regimes
in a vertical pipe with high wall
heat flux
Flow & heat transfer regimes in a vertical heated channel at very high heat flux
BOILING MAPS
Moderate
, follow line (II)

Flow/heat transfer regimes
Liquid forced convection, sub-
cooled boiling, saturated boiling,
forced convective evaporation,
dryout, and post dryout (post-
CHF; liquid-deficient)
Very high
, follow line (IV)

Flow/heat transfer regimes
ONB occurs in highly subcooled
bulk liquid
DNB instead of dryout
Even higher
, line VI or VII
ONB and DNB both occur while
the bulk fluid is highly
subcooled
A qualitative picture of evolution of heat transfer regimes as one moves along
a heated vertical channel with constant
and G
BOILING MAPS
(I), (II)(VII) same as before
h is very high in nucleate boiling
and forced-convective evaporation
regimes,
Drops dramatically once CHF (dryout
of ONB) is reached
Increases in post-CHF regime but still
low in comparison with nucleate
boiling & convective evaporation
regimes
At x
eq
is high, h slightly increases
with increasing x
eq
. Heat transfer is
essentially by nucleate boiling at low
x
eq
,by forced convective evaporation
at high x
eq

A qualitative picture of variation of local heat transfer coefficients along
a uniformly heated vertical channel with constant
and G
Kandlikar (1998), at high x
eq
h may
actually decrease with increasing x
eq

in some circumstances
This implies contribution from both
nucleate boiling & forced convection
BOILING MAPS
At high pressure for water
H/H
fo
decreases with x
eq

At low pressure the opposite
trend is observed.
Refrigerants with relatively low
f
/
g
at normal refrigeration
operating conditions also show
a decreasing H/H
fo
trend
Flow boiling map showing the variation of H/H
fo
with x
eq
Saturated flow boiling map Kandlikar, 1998
Variation of H/H
fo
with x
eq
with boiling number & density ratio as parameters
( )
w
fg
q
Boiling Number Bo
Gh
''
= =
TWO PHASE FLOW AN INTODUCTION. -2
In gas-liquid flow the two phases can adopt various geometric
configurations: known as flow patterns or flow regimes.
Important physical parameters effecting the flow pattern are:
surface tension, which tries to keep the channel walls always wet and
which tends to make small liquid drops and small gas bubbles
spherical
gravity, which (in a non-vertical channel) tends to pull the liquid to the
bottom of the channel,
Importance of 2 phase flow in liquid cooled nuclear reactors,
already discussed
Also commonly occurs in pipelines which nominally carry oil or
gas alone
GAS LIQUID GENERAL FLOW REGIMES
DISPERSED
FLOW
STRATIFIED
FLOW
2 PHASE FLOW PATTERNS EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS
Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns
ADIABATIC FLOW
Bubbly Slug Churn Annular
Flow is
co-current and steady-state in
a long tube with low or moderate
but constant liquid volumetric
flow rate Q
L

The gas volumetric flow rate Q
G

is started from a very low value
and is gradually increased
Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. -1
Bubbly flow pattern characteristics
Liquid
Gas
Distorted-spherical and discrete bubbles
move in a continuous liquid phase
Bubbles have little interaction at very low Q
L

Increase in number density as Q
G
is increased
At higher Q
G
rates, bubbles interact, leading
to their coalescence and breakup
Adiabatic Vertical 2 Phase Flow Patterns. - 2
Liquid
Gas
Large Q
G
discrete bubbles coalesce to form very large
bubbles
The slug / plug flow regime then develops; dominated
by bullet-shaped bubbles (Taylor bubbles)
Approximately hemispherical caps and are separated
from one another by liquid slugs.
The liquid slug often contains small bubbles
A Taylor bubble approximately occupies the entire cross
section and is separated from the wall by a thin liquid
film
Taylor bubbles coalesce and grow in length until a
relative equilibrium liquid slug length (Ls/D 16) in
common vertical channels is reached
Slug / Plug flow pattern characteristics
At further higher Q
G
large Taylor bubbles are disrupted
to form churn (froth) flow
A chaotic motion of the irregular-shaped gas pockets
takes place, where the interface shape cannot be
defined
Both phases
May appear to be contiguous
Have incessant churning and oscillatory
backflow
The liquid near the tube wall continually pulses up and
down
Churn flow also occurs at the entrance of a vertical
channel, before slug flow develops.
Churn flow pattern characteristics
Annular-dispersed (annular-mist) flow replaces churn
flow at even higher Q
G
A thin liquid film, often wavy, sticks to the wall while
gas occupies the core often with entrained droplets
In common pipe scales, the droplets are typically 10
100 m in diameter
The annular-dispersed flow regime is usually
characterized by continuous impingement of droplets
onto the liquid film and simultaneously an incessant
process of entrainment of liquid droplets from the liquid
film surface
Annular flow pattern characteristics
Dispersed Bubbly flow pattern characteristics
Flow regimes associated with very high Q
L

All flow regimes where the 2 phases are not separated
Due to very large liquid and mixture velocities the slip
velocity between the two phases is often small in
comparison with the average velocity of either phase
The effect of gravity is relatively small
As long as the void fraction is small enough to allow
the existence of a continuous liquid phase
Highly turbulent liquid flow does not allow existence
of large gas chunks & shatters gas into small bubbles
The bubbles are quite small and nearly spherical
No churn flow take place
Transition from slug to annular-mist flow may only
involve churn flow due to the oscillatory flow caused
by the intermittent passing of large waves through a
wavy annular-like base flow pattern.
Dispersed Bubbly Flow
FLOW REGIME MAPS. -1
Flow pattern maps are an attempt, on a 2-D graph, to separate the
space into areas corresponding to the various flow patterns
Simple flow pattern maps use the same axes for all flow patterns
and transitions
Complex maps use different axes for different transitions
There are flow maps for vertical as well as for horizontal flow
Several maps are available in the literature
There are quite a few limitations in the use of these maps as will be
pointed out at the end of this topic
VERTICAL FLOW REGIME MAPS. -3
The Hewitt and Roberts (1969) map for vertical up flow in a tube
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
1
,
superficial velocity
mass flow rate
tube cross-sectional area
G G
G
L L
L
Gx
j
G x
j
where
j
=
(

=
=
=
( ) ( ) | |
2 2 2
1 ( )
G L
G L
G L
G x G Gx
Q Q Q
j j j
A A A
= = = = = =
FLOW REGIME MAPS. -4 (vertical flow)
Gover and Aziz 1972,
vertical two phase flow
map, 2.6 cm ID
HORIZANTLE TWO PHASE FLOW PATTERNS. - 1
Bubbly Flow
Increasing Gas flow Rate
Plug Flow Stratified Flow
Wavy Flow Slug Flow
Annular Flow
HORIZANTLE TWO PHASE FLOW PATTERNS. - 1
1. Bubbly flow, in which the gas bubbles tend to flow along the top of
the tube;
2. Plug flow, in which the individual small gas bubbles have
coalesced to produce long plugs;
3. Stratified flow, in which the liquidgas interface is smooth. Note
that this flow pattern does not usually occur, the interface is almost
always wavy as in wavy flow.
4. Wavy flow, in which the wave amplitude increases as the gas
velocity increases;
5. Slug flow, in which the wave amplitude is so large that the wave
touches the top of the tube;
6. Annular flow, which is similar to vertical annular flow except that
the liquid film is much thicker at the bottom of the tube than at the
top.
FLOW REGIME MAPS. -2
1
2
g
l
air water

| |
=
|
\ .
1
2
3
water l water
water l
o
o
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .

Bakers map for horizontal 2 phase flow in a tube
FLOW REGIME MAPS. -5 (horizontal flow)
Gover and Aziz 1972 Horizontal two phase flow map, 2.6 cm ID
QUALITY AND VOID FRACTION. -1
FOR A STATIONARY TWO PHASE MIXTURE;
mixture of mass Total
mixture in vapors of Mass
Quality = = x
mixture of volume Total
mixture in vapors of Volume
Fraction Void = =o
Relationship between x and o can be established by assuming a unit
mass. From thermodynamics the volume of this unit mass is;
fg f
xv v
mass
volume
+ =
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
=
+
=
f
g
g
f
f g f
g
x
x
v
v
x
x
xv v
xv
o
1
1
1
1
1
1
For x=2% steam water system o =97.1% at 1 atmosphere
Quality
V
o
i
d

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(air-water system)
(water-steam system, 100C, 1 bar)
(water-steam system, 300C, 86 bar )
(water-steam system, 350C, 165 bar)
water-steam system, 374.15C, 221.2 bar)
Important Inferences:
1. For constant x, o decreases with pressure. x = o at critical pressure
2. For a constant pressure do/dx decreases with quality
3. For low x as in BWRs, do/dx increases with decreasing pressure,
becomes exceptionally large affecting reactor stability
FOR A FLOWING TWO PHASE MIXTURE
mixture of rate flow mass Total
mixture in vapors of rate flow Mass
Quality = =x
Using eq. of continuity one can find the velocities of vapor or liquid
g
t g
g
g
g g
g t
A
m x v
V
v
V A
m m x

= = =
Similarly
(1 )
(1 )
f f f t
t f f
f f
A V v x m
x m m V
v A
= = =
In flowing systems the vapor phase tends to move faster especially in
vertical systems. The ratio of velocities of the two phases is Slip Ratio
( )
f t
g t
m m x
m m x

= =
= =
liquid of rate flow mass
vapor of rate flow mass
1
SLIP RATIO, -1
Hence SLIP RATIO is;
f
g
g
f
f
g
v
v
A
A
x
x
V
V
S
= =
1
o
o
o

=
+
=
1
g
f
g f
g
A
A
A A
A
SLIP RATIO, QUALITY & VOID FRACTION can be related as;
1
(1)
1
g g
f f
V v
x
S
V x v
o
o
= =
1 1
(2)
1
1
1
1
f
g
x
v
x
S
x
x v
o
= =
| | | |
| |
+
| +
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
\ .
1 1
1 1 (3) x
o
o
| |
= +
|
\ .
If S=1,
there can be two cases
1. A non flow system
2. A flow system with
1. Bubbly flow
2. Dispersed bubbly flow
SLIP RATIO, -2
Important Inferences from the developed equations:
1. For constant pressure and quality, Eq(1), S (1-o)/o
2. Hence for constant pressure and quality o decreases with S
3. o will be less for a flow with slip as compared to a no slip system
4. Thus a high S system will have less voids, so better heat transfer
and moderation
SLIP RATIO. -3
Effect of other operating parameters on S, experimental facts only
S decreases with system pressure and volumetric flow rate
S increases with quality
Slip ratio correlations -1
Several correlations for calculation the slip, S, and the void fraction
are presented in literature.
A few of the most recommended in order of decreasing accuracy.
( )
1 2
2
0 22 0 19
1
0 08 0 51
2
2
1
1
1
1 578
0 0273
. .
. .
.
.
surface tension
L
G
H L
L G
H H L
L L G
y
S E yE
yE
where
x
y
x
GD
E
G D GD
E
o
o
= +
+
=
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
| | | || |
=
| | |
\ .\ . \ .
=
CISE correlation
Slip ratio correlations -2
( )
0.1
0.67
1 1
1 1
g f
v v
g
f
v
x v o
(
| |
| |
(
=
|
|
|
(
\ .
\ .

Von Glahn empirical
correlation based on data of
lot of workers
( )
1
1
1 1
1 1
1
1
G
G G L
L L
x
K
x x x
K K
x x x
K
x
| |
+
(
|

| | | |
\ .
(
= + +
| |
(
| |
\ . \ .
+
(
|
\ .
(

Smiths void correlation
Where K = 0.4 in order to achieve good agreement with experimental data
1 1
L
G
S x

| |
=
|
\ .
Chisholms slip correlation
3
L
G
S

=
Zivis slip correlation
1 S =
Homogeneous flow model
SLIP RATIO. -4
Simplified procedure to design a BWR core channel
Estimate a maximum value
of o at the channel exit
o usually fixed by the
nuclear moderation
constraints
Corresponding value of x is
then determined from the
earlier mentioned correlations
This x then determines the
amount of heat generated in
the channel
Since o depends on S,
generally it is assumed that
S is constant throughout
the channel
This simplification
introduces some errors but
consider the change in S
along a particular channel
SLIP RATIO. -6
1. S increases rapidly in the
initial portion of fuel
channel
2. S increases quite slowly
along the major part of fuel
channel
3. S increases sharply at the
exit of fuel channel due to
turbulence
Flow regimes not found in adiabatic flows
Only found in boiling channels
1. Inverted-annular regime
2. Dispersed-droplet regime
Inverted-annular flow regime a vapor
film separates predominantly liquid
flow from the wall
Liquid flow contain entrained bubbles
Flow regime takes place in channels
subject to high wall heat fluxes, leads
to DNB
Dispersed-droplet regime superheated
vapor containing entrained droplets
flows in an otherwise dry channel
Regime occurs in boiling channels
when massive evaporation has already
caused the depletion of most of the
liquid
1. These flow regime maps generally address developed flow conditions
and are not very accurate for short flow passages
2. Empirical flow regime maps often attempt to specify parameter ranges
for various flow regimes using a common set of coordinates.
1. Mechanisms that cause various regime transitions are different, a
common set of coordinates may not be appropriate for the entire
flow regime map
3. Most flow regime maps are based on data obtained with water, or liquids
whose properties are not significantly different than water, in channels
with diameters in the 1- to 10-cm range. The maps may not be useful for
significantly different channel sizes or fluid properties.
4. Hence whatever data reported in literature depends on certain specific
conditions of apparatus as well as the choice of the fluids. Any significant
variation from the reported conditions lead to significant errors as the
basic physics of the multiphase flow is still developing.
5. Change of one flow regime into the other changes the physics of the
problem, hence regime dependent data is available which cannot be
safely applied to the transition region, unless the physics of the transition
is well understood
SHORTCOMMINGS IN FLOW REGIME MAPS
CALCULATION OF BOILING HEIGHTS IN BWR-1
Why we need to calculate Boiling & Non-boiling heights in a BWR
Flow in a BWR channel encounters various types of
1. Flow through restrictions
2. Flow across baffles,
spacers, tie plates etc
1. Flow behavior changes as
phase changes
2. An increase in the volume of
fluid causes acceleration effects
All these lead to pressure drop, which in turn depends
on the properties (, etc) of the working fluid
We need to know the height of channel where 2-phase flow is
occurring in order to calculate the total pressure drop across the core
1. Flow geometries 1. Flow conditions
1. Heat added to the fluid from subcooled to saturation occur in NBH.
2. Rest of the height is the boiling height
3. Hence the ratio of amount of heat added in the entire channel and
in the non-boiling height is related to the ratio of the two heights
( )
f i
s
t
f e fg i
h h
q
q
h x h h
=
+
Total heat added
Sensible heat added
If the heat added is uniform along the height then
( )
f i
s o
t
f e fg i
h h
q H
q H
h x h h
= =
+
1
o B
H H
H H
=
If the heat added is sinusoidal then
For other types of heat additions
either simple functions are needed
otherwise stepwise graphical
solutions are needed
0
0
1
1
2
sin
cos
sin
o
H
c
s o
H
t
c
z
q dz
H q H
q H
z
q dz
H
t
t
t
| |
'''
|
| | \ .
= =
|
| | \ .
'''
|
\ .
}
}
Pressure Drop in 2 Phase Flow - 1
Total ac fr st
dP dP dP dP
dz dz dz dz
| | | | | | | |
= + +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
( )
2
1
sin
w f
Total
d AG v
p
dp G
g
dz A dz t A
t
u
(
c
( = +
c
(

Acceleration pressure drop due to
change in momentum as phase
change occurs
2
,
8
w TP
G
where f t
=
Wetted perimeter
The Friction Pressure Drop in 2 Phase Flow - 1
2 phase flow AP is > the single phase pressure drop for same L & G
The difference depends on the flow patterns discussed earlier due to
increased speeds of various phases
The difference in the two pressure drops can be found by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
,2 exp, ,2 ,1 ,
( )
fr P Total P ac others fr P ONLY
P P P P P A A = A A A A
We need a concept to find the (AP)
fr,2P
from the (AP)
fr,1P,ONLY

The concept is the development of the two phase multipliers |
2

By definition
|
2
are always greater than 1
There is one hidden problem in equation A
What fluid you use to determine the (AP)
fr,1P,ONLY
liquid / liquid only
or a gas/gas only
In fact researchers have reported |
2
for all cases
Hence, |
2
is reported as
2

Generally the liquid only or gas/vapor only is adapted
( ) ( )
2
,2 ,1 , fr P fr P ONLY
P P | = A A
While using this concept of |
2
one needs to know the thermodynamic
condition of the fluid (for AP
fr,1P,ONLY
) as well as its flow properties
The thermodynamic state of the single phase liquid or vapor is
always taken as the saturated state
The flow properties are calculated in terms of the superficial velocity
of the liquid only or vapor/gas only conditions for the same mass
flow rate through the same cross-sectional area
This concept is very good but there are some further issues that need
to be addressed
Hence in general the |
2
depends on
The phasic flow rates which in turn depends on the flow
regimes. Imagine the liquid vapor interaction in various flow
regimes. Each flow regime interaction has its own physics
The thermodynamic conditions of the multi-phase flow
The phasic thermodynamic properties and how they will be
calculated
Therefore, the two phase multipliers cannot be reported as a
function of Re number or other parameters as in the case of single
phase flow
The experimental data has been reported for various thermodynamic
and geometric conditions as a function of various parameters such
as quality, void fraction, pressure, mass flux etc.
This data can only be used by others only if dynamic similarity
exists between the experimental setups used and the equipment that
need to be designed by others
The only way one can feel that the similarities exist is the matching
of the flow regimes, which in turn are not yet fully understood
WHAT I S THE WAY OUT
Researchers have developed theoretical models which are regime
dependent for |
2
and then by comparing the experimental data with
these models researchers have suggested various correction factors
to better predict the |
2

Two Phase Flow Modelling
Rigorous modelling of gasliquid 2P flow based on the solution of local
and instantaneous conservation principles is generally very complicated
Simplified models that are based on idealization and time and volume
averaging are usually used instead.
Simplified multiphase flow conservation eqs can be obtained in many ways
a. Assuming that each point in the mixture is simultaneously occupied by
both phases and deriving a mixture model
b. Developing control-volume-based balance equations
c. Performing some form of averaging (time, volume, flow area OR
composite) on local and instantaneous conservation equations
d. Postulating a set of conservation equations based on physical and
mathematical insight.
Most widely used is the averaging method, Lead to flow parameters that are
1. Measurable with available instrumentation
2. Continuous
3. In case of double averaging have continuous first derivatives
Two Phase Flow Models -1
Various twophase flow models
1. Homogeneous mixture model:
1. The simplest two-phase flow model, and it essentially treats the
two-phase mixture as a single fluid
2. The two phases are assumed to be well mixed and have the same
velocity at any location, S = 1
3. Thus, only one momentum equation is needed
4. If in a single-component flow, thermodynamic equilibrium is also
assumed between the two phases everywhere, the homogeneous
equilibrium mixture model results
5. The two phases do not need to be at thermodynamic equilibrium,
however. Examples include flashing liquids and condensation of
vapour bubbles surrounded by sub-cooled liquid
6. The solution of conservation equations is more complicated than
single-phase flow
7. The fluid mixture is compressible, with thermo-physical properties
can vary significantly with time and position.
2. Multi-fluid models:

1. The flow field is divided into at least two (liquid and gas) domains,
and each domain is represented by one momentum equation.
Example: A twofluid model (2FM), which is currently the most
widely used twophase flow model. (The Separated Flow Model)

2. In 2FM, gas and liquid phases are each represented by one
complete set of differential conservation equations (for mass,
momentum, and energy).

3. The assumptions of thermodynamic equilibrium between the two
phases or saturation state for one of the phases are sometimes
made. Either of these assumptions will lead to the redundancy and
elimination of one of the energy equations.
3. Diffusion models:

1. In these models the liquid and gas phases constitute the two
domains

2. However, only a single momentum equation is used

3. This is made possible by obtaining the relative (slip) velocity
between the two phases, or the relative velocity of one phase with
respect to the mixture, from a model or correlation

4. The slip velocity relation is usually algebraic (rather than a
differential equation).

5. The drift flux model (DFM) is the most widely used diffusion
model. The DFM (the ZuberFindlay model) is more often used for
void fraction calculations
2-P Frictional Pressure Drop in Homogeneous Flow-1
Assumptions;
The two phases are assumed to remain well mixed
The two phases move with identical velocities everywhere S = 1
A homogeneous mixture thus acts essentially as a singe-phase fluid that is
compressible and has variable properties
Two-phase pressure drop is developed by analogy with single-phase flow
For a turbulent single-phase flow
2 2
1
1 1
,1 1
1 1
2 2
P
P P
fr P H H P
V dp G
f f
dz D D
| |
= =
|
\ .
Assuming that the friction factor may be expressed in terms of the
Reynolds number by the Blasius equation
( )
0.25
0.25
1
1
0.079 Re 0.079
H
P
P
GD
f
| |
= =
|
\ .
By analogy for a turbulent two-phase flow, one can write
2 2
2
2 2
,2 2
1 1
2 2
P
P P
fr P H H P
V dp G
f f
dz D D
| |
= =
|
\ .
( )
1
4
1
4
2 2
2
0.079 Re 0.079
H
P P
P
GD
f
| |
= =
|
\ .
( )
( )
1
2 2
1
1
P g f P
g f
x
x
x x v v v

( = + = +
(

(

A mean two-phase viscosity
2P
of the homogenized fluid is needed,
which must satisfy the following limiting conditions
2 2
0, ; 1,
P f P g
x x = = = =
Various forms of such relationships quoted in literature
( )
1
2
(1942)
1
P
g f
McAdams et al
x
x
= +
(
(

( )
2
(1960)
1
P g f
Cicchitti et al
x x = +
( )
2 2
(1964)
1
P P g g f f
Dukler et al
xv x v ( = +

Substitute the relation of 2P density and f
2P
into the 2P Darcy equation
2
,2
LO
fr P Lo
dp dp
dz dz
|
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
1
4
1 1 1
L G L
G G
x x

( (
| | | |
+ +
( ( | |
\ . \ .

2
,2
GO
fr P Go
dp dp
dz dz
|
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( )
1
4
1 1
G G
L L
x x x x

( (
+ +
( (

2
,2
G
fr P G
dp dp
dz dz
|
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( )
1
4
7
4
1 1 1
G G
L L
x x x x

( (
+ +
( (

2
,2
L
fr P L
dp dp
dz dz
|
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
( )
1
4
7
4
1 1 1 1
L G L
G G
x x x

( (
| | | |
+ +
( ( | |
\ . \ .

Values of the two-phase frictional multiplier for liquid only for the
homogeneous model steam-water system
1
4
2
1 1 1
L G L
LO
G G
x x

|

( (
| | | |
= + +
( ( | |
\ . \ .

The two-phase friction factor -HEM-8
Application of the homogeneous theory to experimental observations
Friction factor for use in the HEM can be calculated, by either
From single-phase flow correlations
OR, estimate directly from measured two-phase pressure drops
values of f
TP
in the range 0.0029-0.0033 have been suggested for
low-pressure flashing steam-water flow
(Benjamin and Miller 1942; Bottomley 1936-37; Allen 1951)
Values of about 0.005 for analysis of
circulation in high-pressure boilers
(Lewis & Robertson 1940; Markson et al. 1942)
and for petroleum pipe stills
(Dittus & Hildebrand 1942)
1. The experimental two-phase friction factor f
TP
was plotted against the
Reynolds number for all-liquid flow.
2. Large discrepancies from the single-phase friction factor were
observed at Reynolds numbers less than 2 x 10
5

3. Considerably better agreement with the normal single-phase flow
relationship if the experimental friction factor is plotted against the all-
liquid Reynolds number multiplied by the ratio of the inlet to outlet
mean specific volumes.
This is equivalent to defining a new average viscosity
1
1 Re 1
fg fg
f
f f f
v v
GD GD
x x
v v

| | ( (
(
= + = = +
| ( (
(
|
( (
\ .
The HM model performs reasonably well for well-mixed
configuration (e.g., dispersed bubbly).
It deviates from experimental data for flow patterns such as annular,
slug, and stratified flows
Using empirical correlations remain the most widely applied method
to date
Most empirical correlations use the concept of two-phase flow
multipliers that are applicable to all flow regimes (i.e., flow regime
transition effects are implicitly included in them).
Original concept was proposed by Lockhart and Martinelli (1949)
based on a simple separated-flow model
The separated flow model in general it indicates that
2
= , ,
A number of empirical methods are available
We will discuss quite a few of these empirical methods
2-P Frictional Pressure Drop in Separated Flow-1
The Lockhart-Martinelli Method -1
Martinelli and his co-workers argued that the two-phase friction multipliers
2
L
and
2
G
can be correlated uniquely as a function of a parameter X, where
, 2
,
fr L
fr G
dp
dz
X
dp
dz
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
This was verified using their experimental data. The
resulting graphical correlation is shown where friction factor
multipliers are is plotted against X for all four flow regimes
( )
2
2 2
2
2 1 2
f f f f f
f
f
f x G v f u
D D
|
(
(
=
(
(
( (

2 2 2
2
2 2
g g g g g
g
g
f x G v f u
D D
|
( (
=
( (
(

, 2
,
f fr
g fr
dp
dz
X
dp
dz
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
|
\ .
2 2
, ,
g f
fr g fr f fr
dP dP dP
dz dz dz
| |
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
2
, 2
2
,
f fr g
f
g fr
dp
dz
X
dp
dz
|
|
| |
|
\ .
= =
| |
|
\ .
Combine
( )
2
2
2
2 2
2 1
2
f f
g g
f x G v
D
X
f x G v
D
(
(
(

=
(
(

n
f f
f
f
u D
f K

(
=
(
(

n
g g
g
f
u D
f K

(
=
(
(

Simplification
leads to
For non circular
geometry D = D
e
Using Blasius
correlation where
n= 0.25

2
2
1
n
n
f g
g f
x
X
x

| | | |
| |
=
| |
|
| |
\ .
\ . \ .
0.25
1.75
2
1
f g
g f
x
X
x

| | | |
| |
=
| |
|
| |
\ .
\ . \ .
1. Turbulent (L)-Turbulent (G)
tt
C =20

2. Viscous (L)-Viscous (G)
vv
C =5
3. Turbulent (L)-Viscous (G)
tv
C =10
4. Viscous (L)-Turbulent (G)
vt
C =12
The curves are well represented by these when C has the following values
in the following equations
To use the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation to calculate the two-phase
friction pressure gradient,
calculate the friction pressure gradients for each phase flowing in the
channel and then use the Figure OR use the correlations in terms of X
The correlation was developed for horizontal two-phase flow of two-
component systems at low pressures (close to atmospheric) and its
application to situations outside this range of conditions is not
recommended.
2
2
2 2
1
1
1
L
G
C
X X
CX X
|
|
= + +
= + +
It follows that if the parameter
f
is a function of the parameter X then
the void fraction must also be a function of X. The correlation
between and X can be derived
2 2
, ,
fo f
fr fo fr f fr
dP dP dP
dz dz dz
| |
| | | | | |
= =
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
( )
2
2 2
2 2
,
2 2 1
fo f f f
fo f
fr
f fr
f G v f G x v
dP
dz D D
| |
| |
| |
| |
= = |
|
|
|
|
\ .
\ .
\ .
( )
0.25
1
0.079
f
f
G x D
f
=
(
(

0.25
0.079
fo
f
GD
f
(
=
(
(

0.25
1
1
f
o
f
f x
(
=
(

( )
2
2 2
1
f
fo f
fo
f
x
f
| | =
( )
1.75
2 2
1
fo f
x | | =
The Martinelli-Nelson ( 1 948) correlation -1
The Lockhart-Martinelli correlation was related
1. To the adiabatic flow of low pressure air-liquid mixtures,
2. However, the information was purposely presented in a
generalized manner to enable the application of the model to
single component systems and to steam-water mixtures.
1. For the prediction of pressure drops during forced circulation boiling
Martinelli and Nelson (1948) assumed the flow regime would always
be ' turbulent-turbulent '.
Features of Martinelli-Nelson correlation
2. Correlation of frictional pressure gradient is worked in terms of the
parameter which is more convenient for boiling and condensation
problems than
2
fo
|
2
f
|
3. Thermodynamic equilibrium was assumed to exist at all points in
the flow and the curve correlating was arbitrarily applied to
atmospheric pressure steam-water flow.
2
, f tt
|
4. A relationship between
f
and X
tt
was established for the critical
pressure level by noting that as the pressure is increased towards
the critical point, the densities and viscosities of the phases
become similar. The relationship may be represented by

with the value of C=1.36
2
2
1
1
f
C
X X
| = + +
5. Knowing the CURVES for critical and atmospheric pressure,
curves at intermediate pressures were established by trial and error
using the experimental data of Davidson et al. (1943) as a guide.
6. With this knowledge of |
f
and X
tt
for a number of pressures a
plot of |
2
fo
and mass quality x was made using ( )
( )
2
2 2
1
fo f f fo
f f x | | =
HEM correlation
In order to calculate the total two phase pressure drop let us revisit the
separated flow model equation
2
2
0
2
1
x
fo f
fo acc grav
f G v L
p dx p p
D x
|
(
A = + A + A
(

}
Need to solve this
term, an average
value of friction
factor multiplier
Martinelli & Nelson
evaluated this integral
Martinelli and Nelson
used the Lockhart-Martinelli
curve for steam-water flow
at P
atm
showed that, at the.
critical pressure = = x.
Knowing the -X
tt
curves
for both atmospheric and
critical pressures, curves at
intermediate pressures were
interpolated. These curves
were then transposed
to give values of as a
function of mass quality x
with pressure as parameter
The Thom correlation -1
An alternative set of consistent values for the terms 2
0
1
, and
x
fo
dx x
x
| o
(
(

}
Why there was a need
Values were interpolated between P
atm
and P
cr
Thom ( 1964)
revised values
were derived
using an
extensive set of
experimental
data for steam-
water pressure
drops obtained
at Cambridge,
England, on
heated and
unheated
horizontal and
vertical tubes.
Application of the SFM to experimental observations -1
1. The Lockhart-Martinelli-Nelson model has been used extensively for
the correlation of experimental pressure gradients and void fraction
measurements for both single- and two-component gas-liquid flow.
2. Generally, it is found that the separated flow model is capable of more
accurate predictions than the homogeneous model.
3. Two general observations can be made concerning the application of
the Lockhart -Martinelli correlation.
1. It has been widely recognized that the curves of experimental
data plotted as
2
f
or
2
g
versus X are not smooth as shown.
There are discontinuities of slope which are associated with
changes of flow pattern
2. An effect of mass velocity upon the curves of
2
f
versus X has
also been widely reported for steam-water flow at high
pressures. The original Martinelli-Nelson correlation
corresponds to a mass velocity of 500- 1000 kg/m
2
s. The
homogeneous model yields values close to those obtained
experimentally for mass velocities greater than 2000 kg/m
2
s.
Application of the SFM to experimental observations -2
Quantitative data which illustrate
the effect have been reported by
Zuber et al. (1967) for the case of
Freon at elevated pressures and by
Hughmark and Pressburg (1961)
for low-pressure air-liquid flow.
Correlations for use with the HEM or SFM -1
Attempts to correct existing models for the influence of mass velocity on the
frictional multiplier, have been published by Baroczy (1965), by
Chisholm (1968), and by Friedel (1979).
2
, fo tt
|
THE BAROCZY CORRELATION
This method employs the use of two separate set of curves
The first of these is a plot of the two-phase frictional multiplier as a function
of a physical property index with mass quality x as parameter for a
reference mass velocity of 1356 kg/m
2
s (1x10
6
1b/hr ft
2
)
The second is a plot of correction factor expressed as a function of the
same physical property index for mass velocities of 339, 678, 2712, and 4068
kg/m
2
s with mass quality as parameter. This plot serves to correct the value
of obtained from the first plot to the appropriate value of mass velocity.
2
, fo tt
|
The method proposed by Baroczy was tested against data from a wide range
of systems including both liquid metals and refrigerants with satisfactory
agreement between the measured and calculated values.
THE BAROCZY CORRELATION plot-1
THE BAROCZY CORRELATION DATA-1
THE BAROCZY CORRELATION plot-2
2
2
( 1356)
,
2
fo f
fo G
fo fr
f G v
p dP
L dz D
|
=
A
| |
= = O
|
\ .
CHISHOLM'S METHOD -1
2
2
1
1
f
C
X X
| = + +
Chisholm and Sutherland proposed the following procedure to account for
effects of G for steam-water flow in pressure tubes at pressures above 3
MPa (435 psia/30 bar) .
For G
m
G*; (G* is a reference mass flux)
( )
0.5 0.5 0.5
2
fg g f
g f g
v v v
C C
v v v

( (
| | | | | |
( (
= + +
| | |
| | |
( (
\ . \ . \ .

where
( ) 2
0.5 2 2 power coeff of Re in the ' ' relation
n
n f

(
= =

*
2
G
C
G
=
2
2
1
1
f
C
X X
|
(
= + +
(

For G
m
> G*; (G* is a reference mass flux)
0.5 0.5
g f
f g
v v
C
v v
| | | |
= +
| |
| |
\ . \ .
where
2 2
1 1
1 1
C C
T T T T
(
(
= + + + +
(
(

2
2 1 2
1
n
n
n
f f
g g
v
x
T
x v
| | | |
| |
=
| |
|
| |
\ .
\ . \ .
CHISHOLM'S METHOD -2
C is obtained as in the case of
G G*
For rough tubes;
G
*
=1500kg/m
3
s, =0.75
and n =0.2
For smooth tubes;
G
*
=2000kg/m
3
s, =1.0
and n =0
COMPARISON OF METHOD -4
For G > G*, <1
2
2
( )
fo
fo HEM
|
|
=
THE FRIEDEL CORRELATION -1
It was obtained by optimizing an equation for to using a large data
base of two-phase pressure drop measurements
2
fo
|
Friedel (1979), One of the most accurate two-phase p correlations
2
2 3
1
0.045 0.035
3.24
fo
A A
A
Fr We
| = +
where
( )
2
2
1
1
f go
g fo
f
A x x
f
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
( )
0.224
0.78
2
1 A x x =
0.91 0.19 0.7
3
1
f g g
g f f
A

| | | | | |
=
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
2 2
2
G G D
Fr We
gD o
= =
( )
0.91 0.19 0.7
0.24
2 0.78 0.045 0.035
1
3.24 1 1
f g g
fo
g f f
A x x Fr We

|

| | | | | |
= +
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Substituting A
2
and A
3
to get the following relation
where f
go
and f
fo
are the friction factors defined for the total mass velocity
G as all vapour and all liquid, respectively by the equation
The correlation is valid for vertical upwards flow and for horizontal flow
2
/ /
/
2
fo go f g
fo go
f G v
dp
dz D
| |
=
|
\ .
D is the equivalent diameter
is the surface tension
the homogeneous density given by eq.

Standard deviations are about 40-50 per cent, which is large with
respect to single-phase flows but quite good for two-phase flows.
( )
1
f g f
v x v v

(
= +

For vertical, downward flow, Friedels correlation gives
( )
0.9 0.73 0.74
0.29
2 0.8 0.03 0.12
1
48.6 1 1
f g g
fo
g f f
A x x Fr We

|

| | | | | |
= +
| | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
( )
2
Re
0.25 0.86859ln
1.964ln Re 3.8215
fo
fo
fo
f

(

( =
`
(

)

Whalley (1980) has evaluated separated flow models against a large
proprietary data bank and gives the following recommendation:
f g

For most fluids and operating conditions, ( ) is less than 1000 and
the Friedel correlation will be the preferred method.
f g

(c) For ( ) > 1000 and G < 100 kg/m
2
s: Utilize the correlations of
Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) and Martinelli and Nelson (1948)
f g

(b) For ( ) > 1000 and G > 100 kg/m
2
s: Utilize the most recent
refinement of the Chisholm (1973) correlation;
f g

(a) For ( ) < 1000: Utilize the Friedel (1979) correlation;
THE ACCELERATION p FOR TWO PHASE FLOW
The net force acting due to acceleration pressure drop is the product of
acceleration pressure drop and cross-sectional area
a c f fe g ge t i
F p A m V m V mV = A = +
( )
( )
1
1
e t fe e t ge
t i
a e fe e ge i
c c c
x mV x mV
mV
p G x V x V V
A A A
( A = + = +

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
1 1
f f e t f e t f e f
fe
fe fe e c e
m V x mv x mv x Gv
V
A A A o o

= = + = =

e g
ge i i
e
x Gv
V and V Gv
o
= =
Finally
( )
2
2
2 2
1
1
e
e
a f g i
e e
x
x
p G v v v r G
o o
(
A = + =
(
(

Acceleration multiplier
THE MINOR LOSSES FOR TWO PHASE FLOW
Similar to frictional pressure drop, often a twophase multiplier is used
The twophase pressure drop in a sudden expansion
USING THE DEFINITIONS OF HEM
The twophase pressure drop in a sudden contraction
The homogeneous flow model has been found to do well in predicting
experimental data (Guglielmini, 1986)
THE MINOR LOSSES FOR TWO PHASE FLOW
Empirical correlations for two phase pressure drop and it is assumed
that the pressure drop associated with single-phase flow is known
For flow through orifices,
Beattie (1973) proposed
For flow through spacer
grids in rod bundles,
Beattie (1973) proposed
Chisholm (1967, 1981)
for two-phase pressure
drop in a bend Martinellis factor
defined for the bend
where K
L0
is the bends singlephase loss coefficient for the conditions when
all the mixture is pure liquid, R = bend curvature radius and D = pipe diam
P
o
4
3
1
2
CRITICAL FLOW -1
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

Length
5
0
0
0
1
2
V
*
P
back
P
exit
P
o
1
2
P
e
*
0 0
1
2
3
4
5
P
b
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Length
1. This phenomenon occurs in both single- and two- phase flow.
2. The phenomenon has long been observed in boiler and turbine
systems, flow of refrigerants and rocket propellants, and many
others.
3. In nuclear reactors, the phenomenon is of utmost importance in
safety considerations of both boiling and pressurized systems.
4. A break in a primary coolant pipe causes two-phase critical flow in
either system since even in a pressurized reactor, the reduction of
pressure of the hot coolant from about 10 MPa to near atmospheric
causes flashing and two-phase flow.
5. This kind of break results in a rapid loss of coolant and is considered
to be the maximum credible accident in power reactors built to date.
6. An evaluation of the rate of flow in critical 2P systems is important
for the design of emergency cooling and for the determination of the
extent and causes of damage in accidents.
CRITICAL FLOW -2
Steady, 1-D Isentropic Flow With Area Change
Governing equation for Steady 1-D Flow
With Area Change;
Assumptions:
1. No body forces, gdz = 0
2. No friction, oF
f
= 0
3. No heat Transfer, adiabatic flow, oQ = 0
4. No drag force, oD = 0
5. No work done, oW = 0
Continuity Equation
constant m AV = =
Momentum Equation
0 dp VdV + =
Energy Equation
2
constant
2
V
h H + = =
Entropy Equation constant s =
Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties
Continuity Eq.
constant m AV = =
Differentiate logarithmically
0
d dA dV
A V
+ + =
Momentum Eq.
0 dp VdV + =
Can be written as
2
0
dp dV
V
V
+ =
Speed of Sound
2
s
p
a
| | c
=
|
c
\ .
For isentropic flow
2
a d dp =
Combine the three equations and use the definition of Mach Number to get
( )
2
1
dA dV
M
A V
=
( )
2
2
1
dA p dp
M
A V p
| |
=
|
\ .
These equations suggest the manner in which area should change to
accomplish the required expansion or compression of a compressible fluid
Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, contd. -2
(a) Nozzle flow/action
(b) Diffuser flow/action
The area change which shows
the effect of increase in
velocity with decrease in
pressure
The area change which shows
the effect of decrease in
velocity with increase in
pressure
Relationship between dA & dM for Steady
1-D Isentropic flow
dA
M
< 1.0
subsonic
> 1.0
supersonic
dA < 0 dM > 0 dM < 0
dA > 0 dM < 0 dM > 0
T
a
b
l
e

Effect of Area Change on Flow Properties, Choking
WHAT WOULD HAPPEN
ONCE THE
SONIC CONDITIONS ARE REACHED & AREA CHANGE CONTINUES
For subsonic/supersonic flow
Once M=1 at a particular section of converging
section then
What would be M
2,
whereas dA < 0
Table
There can be two possibilities/assumptions
1. M
2
< M
1
where M
2
= subsonic
2. M
2
> M
1
where M
2
= supersonic

For: M
2
< M
1
Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM > 0

Contradiction with basic assumption, M
2
< M
1

For: M
2
> M
1
Table suggests, that for dA < 0 dM < 0

Contradiction with basic assumption, M
2
> M
1

Effect of Area Change, Choking, contd. -2
The Table Is In Fact A Representation Of The Conservation Laws
Under Isentropic Conditions
THESE CONSERVATIONS ARE NEVER VOILATED BY NATURE
CRITICAL MASS FLOW RATE-1
The energy equation (no heat transfer or work)
where
h and h
o
are the specific enthalpy & stagnation enthalpy of the fluid.
Thus
For an ideal gas dh = CpdT, so
for an ideal gas (reversible)
applying the continuity equation,
equation becomes
( ) 1
o o
T p
T p
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
2 2 1
P o o P o
o
T
V gC T T T gC T
T
| |
= =
|
\ .
( )
2
o
V g h h =
0
c
VdV
dh
g
+ =
2
2
o
c
V
h h H
g
+ = =
1
o
o o
p p p
RT RT p
| |
= =
|
\ .
2 1
2
o
c P o
o o o
Ap p p
m g C T
RT p p

+
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
Effect of pressure ratio on mass flow rate
The value of r
p
* can be obtained by differentiating m in the above
equation with respect to p and equating to zero.
1
*
2
1
p
r

| |
=
|
+
\ .
Effect of pressure ratio on mass flow rate
A representative value of r
p
* is 0.53 for air at low temperatures, = 1.4
Steam is not a perfect gas
r
p
* for single-phase steam flow is approximated from the perfect gas
relationship by replacing with 1.3 for superheated & supersaturated
r
p
* value of 0.545.
Two Phase Critical Flow -1
2
2
,
2
cos
2
1
TP m
m g m
e m
Total HEM
g
m
f G dx
G v g
D dz
dp
v
dz
G x
p
u
| |
+ +
|
\ .
=
c
| |
+
|
c
\ .
For a 2P critical flow condition, the requirement is that dp/ dZ
( )
2
1
m
cr
g
dp
G
x dv
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2
2
,SFM
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
1
2 2 1
2 1
1
cos
1
g
m
Total
g f
lo m
lo m
e f
m f g m
v
dp x
G
dz p
xv x v
f G dx
G
D dz
x
x d
G v v g
dz
o
|
o o
o
u
o
o
c
(
= +
(
c

| | | |
+ +
| |
|

\ . \ .
`
| |

+
|

|
\ .
)
( )
2
2
m
cr
g
dp
G
x dv
o
=
The total pressure drop using the HEM, (Reference KAZMI, P=489)
The total pressure drop using the SFM, (Reference KAZMI, P=491)
The different results for the above 2 models different slip ratio
In flashing fluids, a certain length of flow in a valve or pipe is needed
before thermal equilibrium is achieved.
Before that particular length there should be non equilibrium
conditions in terms of both the velocity and the temperature
differences between the two fluids
Hence length of the flowing section plays a critical role in
determining the flow rate at the exit
In the absence of sub cooling and non condensable gases the length to
achieve equilibrium appears to be on the order of 0.1 m
Source D(mm) L/D L (mm)
Fauske (water) 6.35 ~ 6 ~ 100
Sozzi & Sutherland (water) 12.7 ~ 10 ~ 127
Flinta (water) 35 ~ 3 ~ 100
Uchida & Nariai (water) 4 ~ 25 ~ 100
Fletcher (freon II) 3. 2 ~ 33 ~ 105
Van Den Akker et al . (freon 12) 4 ~ 22 90
Marviken data (water) 500 > 0.33 < 166
Relaxation length
observed in various
critical flow
experiments with
flashing liquids
In long channels,
1. Residence time is sufficiently long and thermodynamic equilibrium
between the phases is attained
2. The liquid partially flashes into vapor as the pressure drops along
the channel, and the specific volume of the mixture v attains a
maximum value at the exit.
3. As v is a function of x & o, it must be a function of the slip ratio S
In the absence of sub cooling and non condensable gases the length to
achieve equilibrium appears to be of the order of 0.1 m
If flow lengths < 0.1m,
Discharge rate increases strongly with decreasing length as the
degree of non-equilibrium increases
More of the fluid remains in a liquid state
CRITICAL FLOW IN LONG CHANNELS -4
1. Having L/D, ratios between
0 (an orifice) and 40
2. Believed to be independent
of diameter alone.
3. Critical pressure ratio was
found to be approx, 0.55 for
long channels in which the
L/D ratio exceeds 12, region
III
4. This is the region in which
the Fauske slip-equilibrium
model is applicable.
Data obtained on 0.25 in. ID channels with sharp-edged entrances
The critical pressure ratio varies with L/D, for shorter
channels, but independent of the initial pressure in all cases
Equilibrium Models For Two Phase Critical Flow
Total enthalpy of 2P mixture
under thermal equilibrium
conditions undergoing isentropic
expansion can be written as:
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
2 2
g f
o g f
V V
h xh x h x x = + + +
Total entropy of the two-phase
mixture can also be written as:
( )
1
o f
o g f
g f
s s
s xs x s x
s s
= + =
Enthalpy of the two-phase mixture undergoing isentropic expansion

under thermal equilibrium conditions can be written in terms of G as:
( ) ( )
2 1
cr o g f
G h xh x h
'''
( =

( )
1
1 2
2
1
1
g f
x S
x x
where x
S

(
'''
= + +
( `
(

(

)
( )
, , ,
g
cr o o cr
f
V
S and G G h p p S
V
= =
If the critical pressure is known,
g
,
f
, h
g
, s and h
f
are known
x can be determined provided the slip ratio (S) is known
There are three models available to use the value of slip ratio S
Moody model is based on maximizing
the specific kinetic energy of the
mixture with respect to the slip ratio
HEM model
1 S =
( )
1 3
Moody model
f g
S =
( )
1 2
Fauske model
f g
S =
( )
2 2
1
0
2 2
g f
xV x V
S
(
c
+ =
(
c

Fauske model is based on maximizing
the flow momentum of the mixture
with respect to the slip ratio
( )
1 0
g f
xV x V
S
c
( + =

c
Solutions for the set of equations defining the Fauske slip-equilibrium model
Critical flow is described
by local conditions at the
channel exit. Flow is
seen to increase with
increasing pressure &
with decreasing quality
at the exit.
The Fauske model assumes thermodynamic equilibrium a case which due
to the duration of flow, applies to long flow channels.
Experimental data by many investigators showed the
applicability of the Fauske model to L/D ratios above 12
A comparison of the predicted flow rate from various models
HEM model prediction is good for pipe lengths greater than 300 mm
and at pressures higher than 2.0 Mpa
Moody' s model over predicts the data by a factor of 2,
Fauske's model falls in between
When the length of the tube is such that L/D > 40
HEM model appears to do better than the other models
Generally, the predictability of critical two-phase flow remains
uncertain
Results of one model appear superior for one set of experiments
but not others
CRITICAL FLOW IN SHORT CHANNELS - 1
Liquid flashing into vapor occurs when the liquid moves into a region at
pressure lower than p
sat
, if thermal equilibrium is maintained,
Flashing can be delayed due to
1. lack of nuclei about which vapor bubbles may form
2. surface tension which retards their formation
3. heat-transfer problems
Such a situation is called a case of metastability
Metastability occurs in rapid expansions, particularly in short flow
channels, nozzles, and orifices.
The case of short channels has not been completely investigated analytically
For 0 < L/D <12 the critical pressure ratios depend on L/D, unlike long channels
The experimental data covers both long and short tubes, 0 < L/D < 40
Thermal non-equilibrium cases
For orifices (L/D = 0) the experimental
data showed that because residence
time is short flashing occurred outside
the orifice and no critical pressure
existed.
The flow is determined from the incompressible flow orifice equation
For Region 1, 0 < L/D < 3,
the liquid immediately
speeds up and becomes a
metastable liquid core jet
where evaporation occurs
from its surface
( )
0.61 2
o b
G p p =
( )
0.61 2
o cr
G p p =
The flow is determined from the incompressible flow orifice
equation but p
b
changes to p
c
which can be obtained from
For 3 < L/D < 12, the metastable liquid
core breaks up, resulting in high-
pressure fluctuations. The flow is less
than would be predicted.
experimental critical flows for region II.
It will have some effect on rounded-entrance channels. The existence of
gases or vapor bubbles will affect the flow also, since they will act as
nucleation centres.
All the above data were obtained on sharp entrance channels
In rounded entrance channels, the metastable liquid remains more in
contact with the walls and flow restriction requires less vapor.
For 0 < L/D < 3 channels, such as nozzles, the rounded entrances result in
higher critical pressure ratios than indicated earlier as well as greater flows.
The effect of rounded entrances is negligible for long channels (L/D > 12)
and the slip equilibrium model can be used
The effect of L/D ratio on flow diminishes between 3 and 12.
The condition of the wall surface does not affect critical flow in sharp
entrance channels, since the liquid core is not in touch with the walls and
evaporation occurs at the core surface or by core break up
In the absence of significant frictional losses, Fauske proposed
1
fg
cr
fg f
h
G
v NTc
=
N, a non-equilibrium
parameter
2
2 2
10
2
fg
f fg f
h
N L
p K v Tc
= +
A
where p =p
o
- p
b

K = discharge coefficient (0.61 for sharp edge)
L = length of tube, ranging from 0 to 0.1 m
For large values of L (L > 0.1 m) , N =1.0 and above eq. reduces to
1
fg
cr
fg f
h
G
v Tc
=
When the properties are evaluated at p
o
the value of
G
cr
predicted by this eq. is called the equilibrium rate
model (ERM)
A comparison of ERM model with experimental data and other models
The effect of sub-cooling on the discharge rate is simply obtained by
accounting for the increased single-phase pressure drop [p
o
- p(T
o
)]
resulting from the sub-cooling
For flow geometries where equilibrium rate conditions prevail for
saturated inlet conditions (L > 0.1 m) , the critical flow rate is
Good agreement between this prediction and various data
including the large-scale Marviken data
If sub-cooling is zero [p(T
o
) = p
o
] , the critical flow rate is approximated
by ERM model
( )
2
2
cr o o l ERM
G p p T G + (

Eq. A
Comparison of Marviken test 4 (D =
509 mm and L/D = 3.1) and calculated
values based on Eq. A
Comparison of typical Marviken data
(D ranging from 200 to 509 mm and L
ranging from 290 to 1809 mm) and
calculated values using Eq. A
Axial Temperatures in fuel rods-1
A typical radial temperature distribution in a fuel channel
The radial temperature distribution across a fuel rod
already done in 1
st
semester.
Now we study the axial distribution of the coolant, clad
and fuel temperatures in steady state conditions. Both
the PWR and BWR configurations
Steady-state temperature distribution in a PWR core
As a reasonable assumption, that the variation of the
axial heat generation rate, q(z), along the fuel rod has a
cosine trend:
( )
( ) cos
c e
q z q z H t
'''
'''
=
In terms of per unit length
( )
( ) cos
c e
q z q z H t
'
'
=
Assumptions:
coolant remains always in the liquid phase
physical properties of the coolant, fuel and cladding are constant.
COOLANT TEMPERATURE
Energy balance in the coolant for a volume having infinitesimal height is:
Heat generated in infinitesimal volume = sensible heat gained by coolant
( ) ( )
( )
p coolant f coolant
mc dt q z dz
'
=
If cross-sectional area
of fuel is constant
OR
( ) ( )
( )
p coolant f coolant c
mc dt q z Adz
'''
=
Temperature rise in fluid when it
interacts with fuel rod height dz
Volume of infinitesimal
height of fuel rod
Total temperature increase in fluid when it passes through the flow
channel while interact with fuel rod of height H/2 to z
( ) ( )
2 2
( ) cos
f
f
in
t
z z
p coolant f coolant c c c
e t H H
z
mc dt A q z dz A q dz
H
t

''' '''
= =
} } }
( )
sin sin
2
in
c c e
fluid f
p coolant e e
A q H z H
t t
mc H H
t t
t
''' | |
= + +
|
\ .
This equation gives temperature rise of fluid as function of channel height z
( )
2
sin
2
out in
c c e
f f
p coolant e
A q H H
t t
mc H
t
t
'''
= +
( )
2
out in
c c
f f
p coolant
A q H
t t
mc t
'''
= +
To get the fluid exit
temperature put z= H/2
In case H = H
e

To get the cladding temperature t
c
make the heat balance across the heat
transfer surface between cladding and coolant at steady state
Heat convected through cladding surface = heat generated in volume of height dz
( )
cos
c c c c f
e
z
A q dz A q dz h t t Cdz
H
t
''' '''
= =
Solve this equation in combination with the equation giving the fluid
temperature at any height z
( )
1
sin sin cos
2
in
e
c f c c
p coolant e e e
H z H z
t t A q
mc H H hC H
t t t
t
(
| |
'''
= + + +
(
|
(
\ .

CLADDING TEMPERATURE
heat transfer coeff.
assumed constant
Surface area of
heat transfer
Temperature rise
across the liquid film
( )
1
sin sin cos
2
in
e
c f c c
p coolant e e e
H z H z
t t A q
mc H H hC H
t t t
t
(
| |
'''
= + + +
(
|
(
\ .

hence
cos
c c
c f
e
A q z
t t
hC H
t
'''
=
hence
(t
c
t
f
) has also a cosine distribution as q

t
f
A constant = (t
c
t
f
)
c
at z = 0
How to get the height where
maximum cladding surface
temperature will occur
0
c
dt
dz
=
Solve to get
1
( )
tan
e e
c
p coolant
H hCH
z
mc t t
=
If R = radius of the fuel pellet and c = cladding thickness with no gas gap;
( )
1
( )
tan
1 1
2
e e
c
p coolant
H H
z
mc
h R c
t

=

(

` (
+

)
Similarly one can find other temperatures and their locations
( )
1
,
( )
tan
1 1 1 1
ln
4 2
e e
m fuel
p coolant
f c
H H
z
R c
mc
k k R h R c
t

=

(
+
+ +
` (
+

)
1
,
(coolant )
tan
1 1 1 1
ln
4 2 2 2
e e
m fuel
co
p
f c ci g g co
H H
z
R
mc
k k R R h R h
t
t
t t t t
=
(
+ + +
(

( )
/
,CL
sin sin
2
1 1 1 1
ln cos
2 2 2 4
in
e
p coolant e e
f f c c
co
co c ci g g f e
H z H
mc H H
t t A q
R z
R h k R R h k H
t t
t
t
t t t t
(
| |
+ +
( |
\ .
(
= +
(
(
(
+ + +
(
(
(

Similarly one can find other temperatures and their locations
HOT SPOT FACTORS
How the reactor design on paper differ from the actually built reactor.
Does the following parameters are exactly manufactured as per the
drawings:
Fuel elements dimensions
Cladding thickness
Fuel Enrichments
Physical of the materials used such as k
fuel
, k
clad
and k
gap
Coolant flow areas and the pressure drop
Neutron flux distribution exactly as predicted in the reactor physics
The performance limiting parameters are the various maximum
temperatures that occur in a power reactor core
Calculated strictly on the basis of the above mechanical and nuclear
parameters mentioned on the reactor design sheets and diagrams
In practice, deviations occur on both sides
Only those matter that cause the temperatures to exceed the nominal
temperatures
Nominal values that are based on no deviations
Hence deviated values are called hot values. They exceed the nominal
values by factor called hot spot or hot-channel factor
HOT SPOT FACTORS
Classification of Hot-Spot Factors:
Nuclear Hot-Spot Factors
Those which occur due to variations in | from the core average value
Due to valleys and peaks in fuel and control rods (partial or full
insertion)
Non homogeneous moderator, boiling and structural materials
Maximum effect of inhomogeneity is when neutron mean free path for
thermalization is small as in PWR
Less effect in fast or heavy water or graphite moderated cores
Presence of good infinite reflectors causing peaks at ends of core
Engineering Hot-Spot Factors (have two sub factors)
Mechanical Factors
Flow distribution factors
The individual sub-factors are usually determined from statistical data
HOT SPOT SUB-FACTORS
Consider a 99.865 % confidence level in deviation of actual to nominal
flow areas
Let A
h
be the hot spot flow area as compared to A
n
the nominal low area
Should A
n
> A
h
will worry us or A
n
< A
h
For A
n
< A
h
there will be reduced flow rate hence reduced velocity hence
low heat transfer coefficient
As heat generated is independent of flow rate and remains constant hence
for low flow rate the coolant temperature rise will be more.
Consequently all the other fuel temperatures will increase
Therefore t
c,h
(z) >t
c,n
(z)
Inlet temperature of coolant is same for both cases t
c,h
(z) >t
c,n
(z)
For low coolant velocity in hot channel Re
h
will decrease and therefore
t
f,h
(z) >t
f,n
(z). The temperature rise across the film (T
wall
- T
bulk
)
This will lead to a higher outside clad temperature due to two factors
originating from one physical deviation i.e flow area
The two different factors are flow rate decease and heat transfer
coefficient decrease
The hot spot sub factor for the coolant temperature rise f
c
for the deviation
in flow area
Pressure drop will be same for all channels irrespective of their flow area
being parallel channels
Assuming turbulent flow and using Darcy equation. Write Darcy equation
for hot and for nominal cases and take their ratio as P is same
0.5
0.5
,
,
e h
h n
n e n h
D
V f
V D f
| |
| |
=
|
|
\ .
\ .
( )
0.2
e
f DV

0.5 0.1
, ,
, ,
e h e h h
h
n e n e n n
D D V
V
V D D V
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
2
3
,
,
e h
h
n e n
D
V
V D
| |
=
|
\ .
4
e
A
D
P
=
Flow area different for hot and nominal case
Wetted perimeter is independent of flow area
e
D A
2
3
h h
n n
V A
V A
| |
=
|
\ .
The hot-spot sub factor are ratio of hot to nominal temperature rise
Coolant temperature rise is obtained from the heat generated
( ) ( )
p c
q z AVc t z = A
,
,
c h
n n
c
c n h h
t
AV
f
t AV
A
= =
A
2
3
h h
n n
V A
V A
| |
=
|
\ .
1.667
,
,
c h
n
c
c n h
t
A
f
t A
A | |
= =
|
A
\ .
Similarly the hot-spot sub factor for the film temperature rise
0.8
0.4
0.023 Pr
e
VD
Nu

| |
=
|
\ .
0.8
0.2
e
V
h
D
Film temperature rise is obtained from heat generated and convected away
( ) ( )
f
q z h t z
''
= A
0.2
0.8
, ,
, ,
f h e h
n
f
f n e n h
t D
V
f
t D V
| | A
| |
= =
|
|
A
\ .
\ .
1
( )
f
t z
h
A
( )
2
3
0.2 0.8
, , ,
, , ,
f h e h e n
f
f n e n e h
t D D
f
t D D
| | | | A
= =
| |
A
\ . \ .
e
D A
2
3
2
3
,
,
e h
h
e
n e n
D
V
V D
V D
| |
=
|
\ .
1
3
,
,
f h
n
f
f n h
t
A
f
t A
A
| |
= =
|
A
\ .
OVEL ALL HOT SPOT FACTORS
Two approaches to estimate the over all hot spot factors
Multiplicative approach, conservative
Statistical approach, realistic
Multiplicative approach = 1134 + 277 = 1411
o
F
Statistical approach = 1134 + 101 = 1235
o
F ( for 3 confidence)
o
o
Maximum center line temperature occurs at 70% of the fuel rod
Coolant inlet temperature = 556.2
o
F
Nominal temperature rise of coolant = 285+41.5+15.5+39.8+196 = 577.8
o
F
Nominal centerline fuel temperature calculated = 556.2+577.8 = 1134
o
F
POST CHF HEAT TRANSFER
Why it is important?
1. LOCA or an overpower accident in LWRs may result in the
exposure of part of the fuel elements to CHF and post CHF
conditions
2. Once through steam generators routinely operate with part of the
length of their tubes in CHF and post CHF conditions
General Observations:
1. Post CHF behavior in flow boiling is somewhat dependent on the
controlling of wall heat flux and wall temperature
2. In vertical tubes with uniformly applied heat flux there are no
hysteresis as in the case of pool boiling
3. If on a short length of tube heat flux is controlled independently of
the rest of the tube length then significant hysteresis are observed
4. If wall temperature is controlled rather than wall heat flux then
transition boiling is observed
POST CHF HEAT TRANSFER w/o HYSTERESIS
Significant hysteresis, observed in pool boiling once CHF is reached
BUT NO hysteresis, in
flow boiling in vertical
tubes with uniform heat
flux
POST CHF HEAT TRANSFER with HYSTERESIS
q" is controlled over a short
length of tube independently
of the rest of the tube
CHF is initiated at the
junction of the two sections,
where the q" is same
Post CHF is observed by
decreasing the q" over the
short length, whereas over the
rest q" remains unchanged
T
w
decreases smoothly until
rewetting occurs and T
w
drops
sharply and film boinling
occurs
POST CHF HEAT TRANSFER with HYSTERESIS. -2
Suggested Physics of this phenomenon
If the surface is partially wet then rewetting normally occurs once q" is
decreased below CHF.
Time taken to rewet the surface depends on the V of the fluid (quench
front), where heat transfer through the liquid is conduction controlled
If the surface has completely dried out due to CHF the surface q" must
fall below CHF by 10 to 20 % before rewetting occurs
The T
w
does not drops with decreasing q" the way it has risen.
The advancing liquid at T
sat
encounters a surface at high temperature
and heat transfer to the liquid is through the vapors instead of the
direct contact with the surface. Thus the liquid is supposed to slip over
the hot surface. (INVERTED ANNULAR FLOW)
Once the T
w
falls to such a level that the advancing liquid is able to
wet the surface only then the T
w
falls sharply
POST CHF HEAT TRANSFER with HYSTERESIS. -2
Compare this with the NORMAL
ANNULAR FLOW pattern
T
w
> T
sat
and
T
v
> T
sat
T
w
> T
sat
and
T
v
> T
sat
High T
w
at low quality

INVERTED ANNULAR FLOW
POST CHF TRANSITION BOILING
If T
w
is controlled rather than q" over a short length then transition
boiling occurs
CHF is initiated at the end of the
long section due to high
temperature attained in the short
section.
If T
w
in the short section is
lowered to T
sat
a smooth cooling
curve is obtained rather than a
rapid jump in T
w
as in case of
controlled q".
Point X can be about 80 to 100
percent of the CHF
Martinelli & Nelson similarly provided the quantitative data for the term
( )
{ }
2
2
0
2 2
2
2
0
2
1
(1 )
1
(1 )
sin
1
x
fo f
fo
g
f
f
x
g f
f G v L
p dx
D x
v
x x
G v
v
Lg
dx
x
|
o o
u
o o
(
A =
(

(
| |

+ +
( |
|

(
\ .

+ +
}
}

Heat Transfer With Phase Change 2014

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Heat Transfer With Phase Change 2014

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HEAT TRANSFER WITH

BUBBLE STATICS AND DYNAMICS -7

Values of constants in the Rohsenows correlation

, boiling occurs in part of

is high or low inlet sub-

, ONB occurs bulk liquid is

, follow line (II)

, follow line (IV)

the homogeneous density given by eq.

Enthalpy of the two-phase mixture undergoing isentropic expansion

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