Computer Architecture and

Organization
Unit I
INTRODUCTION
Computing and Computers
History Humans have relied
mainly on their brains to perform
calculations
As civilization advanced , variety
of computing tools were invented
but did not replace manual
calculation
Eg: Abacus , Slide rules


Limitations of Manual Calculations
As the size and complexity of
the calculations increased ,
serious limitations arised,
The speed at which the
human computer can work is
limited
Humans are prone to error
and hence unreliable
(Distraction , fatigue etc.,)
The Elements of Computers
Central
Processing Unit
Main
Memory
Input
Output
Equipment
ALU
Program
Control
Instructions
Data
Limitations of Computers

Unsolvable problems

Intractable problems

Speed Limitations
The Evolution of Computers
Chinese invented calculating device called
ABACUS
Also known as SOROBAN perform addition
and subtraction
Wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with
beads strung on them.
Rules memorized by the user
Regular arithmetic problems can be done


Abacus
NAPIERS DEVICE
John Napier a Scottish
Mathematician
Set of eleven animal bones later it
was replaced by rod
Number marked on them,they
placed side by side
Products and quotients of large
numbers could be obtained

SLIDE RULE
Robert Bissoker invent slide rule in 1632
Popular computing device
Perform all arithmetic & trigonometric
function
Final value can be straight away read on
scale
PASCALS CALCULATING MACHINE(PASCALINE)
Blaise Pascal a French
mathematician developed mechanical
calculating machine called Pascals
calculating machine in 1642 A.D
First real desktop calculating device
that could add and subtract.
Construct of set of toothed wheels
or gears.
Each wheel having 0 through 9.
Arithmetic operation performed by
turning these wheels.
Concept still seen in conventional
electric meter and taxi meter,
LEIBNITZS IMPROVED PASCAL MACHINE
Pascal machine perform only
addition and subtraction operation

Pascal machine was improved in
1673,

Introduced wheel could perform
multiplication, division and square
root operation.


PUNCHED CARD MACHINE
In 1801,french weaver Joseph mane jacquard
invented first punched card machine,
Involved in designing clothes and making patterns
and design on cloth,
Control textile looms , invented punched cards.
Cards with holes were used to make attractive
design on fiber,
Presence and absence of punched hole represented
two states for raisers or lowers of wrap thread


Aug 20 2007 13
1822 Difference Engine
Numerical tables were constructed by hand using large numbers of
human computers (one who computes).
Annoyed by the many human errors this produced, Charles Babbage
designed a difference engine that could calculate values of polynomial
functions.

It was never completed,
although much work was done
and money spent.
Aug 20 2007 14
1837 Analytical Engine
Charles Babbage first described a general purpose
analytical engine in 1837, but worked on the design
until his death in 1871. It was never built.

As designed, it would have been programmed using
punch-cards and would have included features such
as sequential control, loops, conditionals and
branching.

If constructed, it would have been the first computer
as we think of them today.


Aug 20 2007 15
1936 Konrad Zuse Z1 Computer
First freely programmable computer,
electro-mechanical punch tape
control.
Aug 20 2007 16
1944 Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper
Harvard Mark I Computer
The IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator
(ASCC) Computer was created by IBM for Harvard
University, which called it the Mark I. First universal
calculator.
Limitations of Mechanical Era
Computing speed is limited by the
inertia of its moving parts
Transmission of digital information by
mechanical means is quite unreliable
Electronic Era
The First Generation
computers
Vacuum Tubes
Vacuum Tubes - 1941
1956
First Generation
Electronic Computers
used Vacuum Tubes
Vacuum tubes are
glass tubes with circuits
inside.
Vacuum tubes have no
air inside of them,
which protects the
circuitry.

Electrical Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), 1940s
an early computer
developed at UPenn
Size: 30 x 50 room
18,000 vacuum tubes
1500 relays
weighed 30 tons
designers
John Mauchly
J. Presper Eckert


Structure of von Neumann
machine
IAS COMPUTERS (Institute for Advanced
Study)
Second Generation
1956 Computers began to
incorporate Transistors
Replaced vacuum tubes with
Transistors

Aug 20 2007 24
1947 The transistor
Invented by William
Shockley (seated) John
Bardeen & Walter
Brattain at Bell Labs.

The transistor replaces
bulky vacuum tubes
with a smaller, more
reliable, and power
saving solid sate circuit.
Aug 20 2007 25
1953 IBM 701 EDPM
Computer
IBM enters the
market with its first
large scale electronic
computer.

It was designed to be
incomparable with
IBM's existing punch
card processing
system, so that it
would not cut into
IBM's existing profit
sources.
Aug 20 2007 26
1954 FORTRAN
John Backus & IBM
invent the first
successful high level
programming language,
and compiler, that ran on
IBM 701 computers.

FORmula TRANslation
was designed to make
calculating the answers
to scientific and math
problems easier.

Aug 20 2007 27
1958 Integrated Circuit
Jack Kilby at Texas
Instruments & Robert
Noyce at Fairchild
semiconductor
independently invent
the first integrated
circuits or the chip.
circuit.

Aug 20 2007 28
1960 First commercial transistorized
computers
DEC introduced
the PDP-1and
IBM released the
7090 which was
the fastest in the
world.

Aug 20 2007 29
1964 The mouse and window
concept
Douglas Engelbart
demonstrates the
worlds first mouse,
nicknamed after the
tail.

SRI (Stanford
Research
Institute) received
a patent on the
mouse in 1970,
and licensed it to
apple for $40,000.
The First Microprocessor 1971
Intel
The 4004 had 2,250
transistors
four-bit chunks (four 1s
or 0s)
108Khz
Called Microchip
4
th
Generation 1971-present

MICROCHIPS!
Getting smaller and smaller, but we
are still using microchip technology
Generations of Electronic Computers
First
Generation
Second
Gen.
Third
Gen.
Fourth Gen.
Technology Vacuum
Tubes
Transistors Integrated
Circuits
(multiple
transistors)
Microchips
(millions of
transistors)
Size Filled Whole
Buildings
Filled half a
room
Smaller Tiny - Palm
Pilot is as
powerful as
old building
sized
computer




Evolution of Electronics
Vacuum
Tube
Transistor
Integrated
Circuit
Microchip
(VLSIC)
Computers Progress
UNIVAC
(1951-1970)
(1968 vers.)
Mits
Altair
(1975)
IBM PC
(1981)
Macintosh
(1984)
Pentium
IV
Circuits

Integrated
Circuits
2 Intel
8080
Microchip
Intel 8088
Microchip
- 29,000
Transistors
Motorola
68000

Intel P-IV
Microchip
- 7.5 million
transistors
RAM
Memory
512 K 265 Bytes 256 KB 256 MB
Speed 1.3 MHz 2 KHz 4.77 MHz 3200 MHz
= 3.2 GHz
Storage 100 MB
Hard Drive
8 Floppy
Drive
Floppy
Drive
Floppy
Drives
Hard
Drive,
Floppy,
CD-Rom
Size Whole
Room
Briefcase
(no monitor)
Briefcase
+ Monitor
Two
shoeboxes
(integrated
monitor)
Small
Tower
Cost $1.6 million $750 $1595 ~$4000 $1000 -
$2000