1

1. Power and RMS Values

2
3
4
5
Instantaneous power p(t) flowing into the box
) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t p - =
Circuit in a box,
two wires
) (t i
) (t v
+


) (t i
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t i t v t i t v t p
b b a a
- + - =
) (t v
a
Circuit in a box,
three wires
) (t i
a
+



) (t i
b
+

) (t v
b
) ( ) ( t i t i
b a
+
Any wire can be the
voltage reference
Works for any circuit, as long as all N wires are accounted for. There must
be (N 1) voltage measurements, and (N 1) current measurements.
6
Average value of
periodic instantaneous power p(t)
}
+
=
T
o
t
o
t
avg
dt t p
T
P ) (
1
7
Two-wire sinusoidal case
) sin( ) sin( ) ( ) ( ) ( u e o e + - + = - = t I t V t i t v t p
o o
) cos(
2 2
) cos(
2
) (
1
u o u o = = =
}
+
I V VI
dt t p
T
P
T
o
t
o
t
avg
), sin( ) ( o e + = t V t v
o
) sin( ) ( u e + = t I t i
o
(

+ +
=
2
) 2 cos( ) cos(
) (
u o e u o t
VI t p
o
) cos( u o =
rms rms avg
I V P Power factor
Average power
zero average
8
Root-mean squared value of a
periodic waveform with period T
}
+
=
T
o
t
o
t
avg
dt t p
T
P ) (
1
R
V
P
rms
avg
2
=
}
+
=
T
o
t
o
t
rms
dt t v
T
V ) (
1
2 2

Apply v(t) to a resistor
} } }
+ + +
=
(
(

= =
T
o
t
o
t
T
o
t
o
t
T
o
t
o
t
avg
dt t v
RT
dt
R
t v
T
dt t p
T
P ) (
1 ) ( 1
) (
1
2
2
Compare to the average power
expression
rms is based on a power concept, describing the
equivalent voltage that will produce a given
average power to a resistor
The average value of the squared voltage
compare
9
Root-mean squared value of a periodic
waveform with period T
}
+
+ =
T
o
t
o
t
o rms
dt t V
T
V ) ( sin
1
2 2 2
o e
| |
T
o
t
o
t
o
o
T
o
t
o
t
o rms
t
t
T
V
dt t
T
V
V
+
+
(

+
= + =
}
e
o e
o e
2
) ( 2 sin
2
) ( 2 cos 1
2
2 2
2
,
2
2
2
V
V
rms
=
}
+
=
T
o
t
o
t
rms
dt t v
T
V ) (
1
2 2

For the sinusoidal case
2
V
V
rms
=
), sin( ) ( o e + = t V t v
o
10
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Voltage
Current
Given single-phase v(t) and i(t) waveforms for a load
Determine their magnitudes and phase angles
Determine the average power
Determine the impedance of the load
Using a series RL or RC equivalent, determine the R
and L or C
11
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Voltage
Current
Determine voltage and current magnitudes and phase angles
Voltage cosine has peak = 100V, phase angle = -90
Current cosine has peak = 50A, phase angle = -135
, 90
2
100 ~
V V Z =
A I 135
2
50 ~
Z =
Using a cosine reference,
Phasors
12
The average power is
) cos(
2 2
u o - =
I V
P
avg
( ) ( ) - = - = 45 cos
2
50
2
100
) 135 ( 90 cos
2
50
2
100
avg
P
W P
avg
1767 =
13
Voltage Current Relationships
) (t i
R
+ ) (t v
R
R
t v
t i
R
R
) (
) ( =
+ ) (t v
L
) (t i
L
dt
t di
L t v
L
) (
) ( =
+ ) (t v
C
) (t i
C
dt
t dv
C t i
C
) (
) ( =
14
Thanks to Charles Steinmetz, Steady-State AC Problems
are Greatly Simplified with Phasor Analysis
(no differential equations are needed)
R
I
V
Z
R
R
R
= =
~
~
L j
I
V
Z
L
L
L
e = =
~
~
C j I
V
Z
C
C
C
e
1
~
~
= =
R
t v
t i
R
R
) (
) ( =
dt
t di
L t v
L
) (
) ( =
dt
t dv
C t i
C
) (
) ( =
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Time Domain Frequency Domain
voltage leads current
current leads voltage
15















(
(

Z
Z
=
(

(
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
20 100
4
20 100
~
~
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
j
V
V
j
j



(

-
(

+ + -
(

+ + =
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
j j
D


D
j
j
V
(
(
(
(

+ + Z

Z
=
2
1
1
2
1
20 100
2
1
4
20 100
~
1



D
j
j
V
(
(
(
(

+ +
Z

=
20 100
2
1
1
2
1
4
20 100
2
1
~
2


V
1
V
2

Problem 10.17
(
(
(
(

Z
Z
=
(

(
(
(
(

+ +
+ +
1
20 100
4
20 100
~
~
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
2
1 j
V
V
j
j



(

-
(

+ + -
(

+ + =
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
j j
D

D
j
j
V
(
(
(
(

+ +
Z

Z
=
2
1
1
2
1
1
20 100
2
1
4
20 100
~
1



D
j
j
V
(
(
(
(

+ +
Z

=
1
20 100
2
1
1
2
1
4
20 100
2
1
~
2

16
c EE411, Problem 10.17

implicit none
dimension v_phasor(2), i_injection_phasor(2), y(2,2)
complex v_phasor, i_injection_phasor, y, determinant, i0_phasor
real pi

open(unit=6,file='EE411_Prob_10_17.txt')

pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

y(1,1) = 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)
1 + 1.0 / 3.0
2 + 1.0 / 2.0
y(1,2) = -1.0 / 2.0
y(2,1) = y(1,2)
y(2,2) = 1.0 / 2.0
1 + 1.0
2 + 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,-2.0)

i_injection_phasor(1) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))
2 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)

i_injection_phasor(2) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))

determinant = y(1,1) * y(2,2) - y(1,2) * y(2,1)
write(6,*) "determinant, rectangular = ",determinant
write(6,*) "determinant, polar = ", cabs(determinant),
1 atan2(aimag(determinant),real(determinant)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

v_phasor(1) = (i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,2)
1 - y(1,2) * i_injection_phasor(2)) / determinant

v_phasor(2) = (y(1,1) * i_injection_phasor(2)
1 - i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,1)) / determinant

write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), rectangular = ",v_phasor(1)
write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(1)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(1)),real(v_phasor(1))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), rectangular = ",v_phasor(2)
write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(2)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(2)),real(v_phasor(2))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

i0_phasor = (v_phasor(1) - v_phasor(2)) / 2.0
write(6,*) "i0_phasor, rectangular = ",i0_phasor
write(6,*) "i0_phasor, polar = ", cabs(i0_phasor),
1 atan2(aimag(i0_phasor),real(i0_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi

write(6,*)

end
17
c EE411, Problem 10.17

implicit none
dimension v_phasor(2), i_injection_phasor(2), y(2,2)
complex v_phasor, i_injection_phasor, y, determinant, i0_phasor
real pi

open(unit=6,file='EE411_Prob_10_17.txt')

pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

y(1,1) = 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)
1 + 1.0 / 3.0
2 + 1.0 / 2.0
y(1,2) = -1.0 / 2.0
y(2,1) = y(1,2)
y(2,2) = 1.0 / 2.0
1 + 1.0
2 + 1.0 / cmplx(0.0,-2.0)

i_injection_phasor(1) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))
2 / cmplx(0.0,4.0)

i_injection_phasor(2) = 100.0
1 * cmplx(cos(20.0 * pi / 180.0),sin(20.0 * pi / 180.0))

determinant = y(1,1) * y(2,2) - y(1,2) * y(2,1)
write(6,*) "determinant, rectangular = ",determinant
write(6,*) "determinant, polar = ", cabs(determinant),
1 atan2(aimag(determinant),real(determinant)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

v_phasor(1) = (i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,2)
1 - y(1,2) * i_injection_phasor(2)) / determinant

v_phasor(2) = (y(1,1) * i_injection_phasor(2)
1 - i_injection_phasor(1) * y(2,1)) / determinant

write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), rectangular = ",v_phasor(1)
write(6,*) "v_phasor(1), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(1)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(1)),real(v_phasor(1))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), rectangular = ",v_phasor(2)
write(6,*) "v_phasor(2), polar = ", cabs(v_phasor(2)),
1 atan2(aimag(v_phasor(2)),real(v_phasor(2))) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*)

i0_phasor = (v_phasor(1) - v_phasor(2)) / 2.0
write(6,*) "i0_phasor, rectangular = ",i0_phasor
write(6,*) "i0_phasor, polar = ", cabs(i0_phasor),
1 atan2(aimag(i0_phasor),real(i0_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi

write(6,*)

end
Program Results

determinant, rectangular = (1.125000,4.1666687E-02)
determinant, polar = 1.125771 2.121097

v_phasor(1), rectangular = (63.06294,-14.65763)
v_phasor(1), polar = 64.74397 -13.08485

v_phasor(2), rectangular = (80.67508,-8.976228)
v_phasor(2), polar = 81.17290 -6.348842

i0_phasor, rectangular = (-8.806068,-2.840703)
i0_phasor, polar = 9.252914 -162.1211

18
Active and Reactive Power Form a Power Triangle
), cos(
2 2
u o =
I V
P
avg
), sin(
2 2
u o =
I V
Q
jQ P I V S + = =
-
~

~
) ( u o
o Z =V V
~
u Z = I I
~
P
Q
Projection of S
on the real axis
Projection of
S on the
imaginary
axis
Complex
power
S
) ( u o
) cos( u o is the power factor
19
Question: Why is there conservation of P and Q in a circuit?
Answer: Because of KCL, power cannot simply vanish but must
be accounted for
( ) 0
~ ~ ~ ~
= + +
C B A
I I I V
Consider a node, with voltage (to any reference), and three currents
I
A
I
B
I
C
0
~ ~ ~
= + +
C B A
I I I
( ) 0
~ ~ ~ ~ *
= + +
C B A
I I I V
0 = + + + + +
C C B B A A
jQ P jQ P jQ P
0 = + +
C B A
P P P
0 = + +
C B A
Q Q Q
20
Voltage and Current Phasors for Rs, Ls, Cs
R R
R
R
R
I R V R
I
V
Z
~ ~
,
~
~
= = =
L L
L
L
L
I L j V L j
I
V
Z
~ ~
,
~
~
e e = = =
C j
I
V
C j I
V
Z
C
C
C
C
C
e e
~
~
,
1
~
~
= = =
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Voltage and
Current in phase
Q = 0
Voltage leads
Current by 90
Q > 0
Current leads
Voltage by 90
Q < 0
21
| | | | | | | | ( ) u o u o Z = Z - Z = - = + = VI I V I V jQ P S
*
* ~ ~
( ) u o = cos VI P
( ) u o = sin VI Q
P
Q
Projection of S
on the real axis
Projection of
S on the
imaginary
axis
Complex
power
S
) ( u o
22
| |
R
V
Z
V
Z
V
V jQ P S
2
*
2
*
~
~
= =
(

- = + =
R I
R
V
P
2
2
= = 0 = Q
| | | | R I Z I I Z I jQ P S
2 2
* ~ ~
= = - = + =
also
so
Resistor
, Use rms V, I
23
| |
( )
L
jV
L j
V
L j
V
Z
V
V jQ P S
e e
e
2 2
*
2
*
~
~
=

= =
(

- = + =
L I
L
V
Q e
e
2
2
= = 0 = P
| | | | ( ) L jI L j I I Z I jQ P S e e
2 2
* ~ ~
= = - = + =
also
so
Inductor
, Use rms V, I
24
| |
2
2
*
2
*
1
1
~
~
CV j
C j
V
C j
V
Z
V
V jQ P S e
e
e
=

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(

- = + =
C
I
CV Q
e
e
2
2
= = 0 = P
| | | |
C
I
j
C j
I I Z I jQ P S
e e
2
2
* 1 ~ ~
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= - = + =
also
so
Capacitor
, Use rms V, I
25
Active and Reactive Power for Rs, Ls, Cs
(a positive value is consumed, a negative value is produced)
0
L I
L
V
rms
rms
e
e
2
2
,
R I
R
V
rms
rms
2
2
,
0
0
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
Active Power P Reactive Power Q
, ,
2
2
C
I
CV
rms
rms
e
e

source of reactive power

26
Now, demonstrate Excel spreadsheet
EE411_Voltage_Current_Power.xls
to show the relationship between v(t), i(t), p(t), P, and Q
Vmag = 1
Vang = 0
Imag = 0.90 90
Iang = -30 150
Phase A Phase A Phase A P Q Phase B Phase B Phase B Phase C Phase C Phase C A+B+C Q
wt v(t) I(t) p(t) 0.389711 0.225 v(t) I(t) p(t) v(t) I(t) p(t) p(t) 0.675
0 1 0.779423 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 -0.5 -0.779423 0.389711 -0.5 5.51E-17 -2.76E-17 1.169134 0.675
2 0.999391 0.794653 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.469472 -0.763243 0.358321 -0.529919 -0.03141 0.016645 1.169134 0.675
4 0.997564 0.808915 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.438371 -0.746134 0.327084 -0.559193 -0.062781 0.035107 1.169134 0.675
6 0.994522 0.822191 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.406737 -0.728115 0.296151 -0.587785 -0.094076 0.055296 1.169134 0.675
8 0.990268 0.834465 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.374607 -0.70921 0.265675 -0.615661 -0.125256 0.077115 1.169134 0.675
10 0.984808 0.845723 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.34202 -0.68944 0.235802 -0.642788 -0.156283 0.100457 1.169134 0.675
12 0.978148 0.855951 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.309017 -0.66883 0.20668 -0.669131 -0.187121 0.125208 1.169134 0.675
14 0.970296 0.865136 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.275637 -0.647406 0.178449 -0.694658 -0.21773 0.151248 1.169134 0.675
16 0.961262 0.873266 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.241922 -0.625193 0.151248 -0.71934 -0.248074 0.178449 1.169134 0.675
18 0.951057 0.880333 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.207912 -0.602218 0.125208 -0.743145 -0.278115 0.20668 1.169134 0.675
20 0.939693 0.886327 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.173648 -0.578509 0.100457 -0.766044 -0.307818 0.235802 1.169134 0.675
22 0.927184 0.891241 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.139173 -0.554095 0.077115 -0.788011 -0.337146 0.265675 1.169134 0.675
24 0.913545 0.89507 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.104528 -0.529007 0.055296 -0.809017 -0.366063 0.296151 1.169134 0.675
26 0.898794 0.897808 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.069756 -0.503274 0.035107 -0.829038 -0.394534 0.327084 1.169134 0.675
28 0.882948 0.899452 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.034899 -0.476927 0.016645 -0.848048 -0.422524 0.358321 1.169134 0.675
30 0.866025 0.9 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 6.13E-17 -0.45 -2.76E-17 -0.866025 -0.45 0.389711 1.169134 0.675
32 0.848048 0.899452 0.762778 0.389711 0.225 0.034899 -0.422524 -0.014746 -0.882948 -0.476927 0.421102 1.169134 0.675
34 0.829038 0.897808 0.744316 0.389711 0.225 0.069756 -0.394534 -0.027521 -0.898794 -0.503274 0.452339 1.169134 0.675
36 0.809017 0.89507 0.724127 0.389711 0.225 0.104528 -0.366063 -0.038264 -0.913545 -0.529007 0.483272 1.169134 0.675
38 0.788011 0.891241 0.702308 0.389711 0.225 0.139173 -0.337146 -0.046922 -0.927184 -0.554095 0.513748 1.169134 0.675
Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase Circuit
-1.5
0
1.5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
va
ia
pa
P
Q
Instantaneous Power in Three-Phase Circuit
-1.5
0
1.5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
va
ia
vb
ib
vc
ic
pa+pb+pc
Q
27
A load consists of a 47 resistor and 10mH inductor in
series. The load is energized by a 120V, 60Hz voltage
source. The phase angle of the voltage source is zero.

a. Determine the phasor current
b. Determine the load P, pf, Q, and S.
c. Find an expression for instantaneous p(t)

A Single-Phase Power Example
28
A Transmission Line Example
Calculate the P and Q flows (in per unit) for the loadflow situation shown below,
and also check conservation of P and Q.
0.05 + j0.15
pu ohms

j0.20 pu mhos


P
L
+ jQ
L
V
L
= 1.020
/0 V
R
= 1.010 / - 1 0
P
R
+ jQ
R
I
S
I
capL
I
capR
j0.20 pu mhos
29
implicit none
complex vl_phasor,sl,icapl_phasor,zcl,is_phasor,zline
complex vr_phasor,sr,icapr_phasor,zcr

real vlmag,vlang,vrmag,vrang,pi,qcapl,qcapr
real vl_mag,vl_ang,vr_mag,vr_ang
real rline, xline, bcap
real pl,ql,pr,qr,is_mag,is_ang,icapl_mag,icapl_ang,icapr_mag,icapr_ang
real qline_loss

open(unit=6,file="EE411_Trans_Line.dat")
pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

vl_mag = 1.02
vl_ang = 0.0
vr_mag = 1.01
vr_ang = -10.0
rline = 0.05
xline = 0.15
bcap = 0.20

vl_phasor = vl_mag * cmplx(cos(vl_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vl_ang * pi / 180.0))
vr_phasor = vr_mag * cmplx(cos(vr_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vr_ang * pi / 180.0))

is_phasor = (vl_phasor - vr_phasor) / cmplx(rline,xline)

icapl_phasor = vl_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)
icapr_phasor = vr_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)

sl = vl_phasor * conjg(is_phasor + icapl_phasor)
sr = vr_phasor * conjg(-is_phasor + icapr_phasor)

pl = real(sl)
ql = aimag(sl)
pr = real(sr)
qr = aimag(sr)

write(6,*) "is_phasor (rectangular) = ",is_phasor
is_mag = cabs(is_phasor)
is_ang = atan2(aimag(is_phasor),real(is_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "is_phasor (polar) ",is_mag,is_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapl_phasor
icapl_mag = cabs(icapl_phasor)
icapl_ang = atan2(aimag(icapl_phasor),real(icapl_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (polar) ",icapl_mag,icapl_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapr_phasor
icapr_mag = cabs(icapr_phasor)
icapr_ang = atan2(aimag(icapr_phasor),real(icapr_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (polar) ",icapr_mag,icapr_ang
write(6,*)

qcapl = cabs(vl_phasor) * cabs(vl_phasor) * (-bcap)
qcapr = cabs(vr_phasor) * cabs(vr_phasor) * (-bcap)

write(6,*) "pl = ",pl
write(6,*) "ql = ",ql
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pr = ",pr
30
implicit none
complex vl_phasor,sl,icapl_phasor,zcl,is_phasor,zline
complex vr_phasor,sr,icapr_phasor,zcr

real vlmag,vlang,vrmag,vrang,pi,qcapl,qcapr
real vl_mag,vl_ang,vr_mag,vr_ang
real rline, xline, bcap
real pl,ql,pr,qr,is_mag,is_ang,icapl_mag,icapl_ang,icapr_mag,icapr_ang
real qline_loss

open(unit=6,file="EE411_Trans_Line.dat")
pi = 4.0 * atan(1.0)

vl_mag = 1.02
vl_ang = 0.0
vr_mag = 1.01
vr_ang = -10.0
rline = 0.05
xline = 0.15
bcap = 0.20

vl_phasor = vl_mag * cmplx(cos(vl_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vl_ang * pi / 180.0))
vr_phasor = vr_mag * cmplx(cos(vr_ang * pi / 180.0),sin(vr_ang * pi / 180.0))

is_phasor = (vl_phasor - vr_phasor) / cmplx(rline,xline)

icapl_phasor = vl_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)
icapr_phasor = vr_phasor * cmplx(0.0,bcap)

sl = vl_phasor * conjg(is_phasor + icapl_phasor)
sr = vr_phasor * conjg(-is_phasor + icapr_phasor)

pl = real(sl)
ql = aimag(sl)
pr = real(sr)
qr = aimag(sr)

write(6,*) "is_phasor (rectangular) = ",is_phasor
is_mag = cabs(is_phasor)
is_ang = atan2(aimag(is_phasor),real(is_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "is_phasor (polar) ",is_mag,is_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapl_phasor
icapl_mag = cabs(icapl_phasor)
icapl_ang = atan2(aimag(icapl_phasor),real(icapl_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapl_phasor (polar) ",icapl_mag,icapl_ang
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (rectangular) = ",icapr_phasor
icapr_mag = cabs(icapr_phasor)
icapr_ang = atan2(aimag(icapr_phasor),real(icapr_phasor)) * 180.0 / pi
write(6,*) "icapr_phasor (polar) ",icapr_mag,icapr_ang
write(6,*)

qcapl = cabs(vl_phasor) * cabs(vl_phasor) * (-bcap)
qcapr = cabs(vr_phasor) * cabs(vr_phasor) * (-bcap)

write(6,*) "pl = ",pl
write(6,*) "ql = ",ql
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pr = ",pr
write(6,*) "qr = ",qr
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "qcapl = ",qcapl
write(6,*) "qcapr = ",qcapr
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pl + pr = ",(pl + pr)
write(6,*) "ql + qr = ",(ql + qr)
write(6,*)

write(6,*) "pline_loss = ",cabs(is_phasor) * cabs(is_phasor) * rline
qline_loss = cabs(is_phasor) * cabs(is_phasor) * xline
write(6,*) "qline_loss = ",qline_loss
write(6,*) "qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr = ",(qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr)
write(6,*)

end
31
-----------------------------------
Results

is_phasor (rectangular) = (1.102996,0.1987045)
is_phasor (polar) 1.120752 10.21229

icapl_phasor (rectangular) = (0.0000000E+00,0.2040000)
icapl_phasor (polar) 0.2040000 90.00000

icapr_phasor (rectangular) = (3.5076931E-02,0.1989312)
icapr_phasor (polar) 0.2020000 80.00000

pl = 1.125056
ql = -0.4107586

pr = -1.062252
qr = 0.1870712

qcapl = -0.2080800
qcapr = -0.2040200

pl + pr = 6.2804222E-02
ql + qr = -0.2236874

pline_loss = 6.2804200E-02
qline_loss = 0.1884126
qline_loss + qcapl + qcapr = -0.2236874
0.05 + j0.15
pu ohms

j0.20 pu mhos


P
L
+ jQ
L
V
L
= 1.020
/0 V
R
= 1.010 / - 1 0
P
R
+ jQ
R
I
S
I
capL
I
capR
j0.20 pu mhos
32
RMS of some common periodic waveforms
2
2
0
2
0
2 2
1
) (
1
DV DT
T
V
dt V
T
dt t v
T
V
DT T
rms
= - = = =
} }

D V V
rms
=
Duty cycle controller
DT
T
V


0
0 < D < 1
By inspection, this is
the average value of
the squared
waveform
33
RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.
T
T T
rms
t
T
V
dt t
T
V
dt t
T
V
T
V
0
3
3
2
0
2
3
2
0
2
2
3
1
= =
(

=
} }

T
V


0
3
V
V
rms
=
Sawtooth
34
RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

Using the power concept, it is easy to reason that the following waveforms
would all produce the same average power to a resistor, and thus their rms
values are identical and equal to the previous example
V

0
V

0
V

0
0

-V
V

0
3
V
V
rms
=
V

0
V

0
35
2. Three-Phase Circuits
36
Three Important Properties of Three-Phase
Balanced Systems
Because they form a balanced set, the a-b-c
currents sum to zero. Thus, there is no return
current through the neutral or ground, which
reduces wiring losses.
A N-wire system needs (N 1) meters. A three-
phase, four-wire system needs three meters. A
three-phase, three-wire system needs only two
meters.



The instantaneous power is constant

Three-phase,
four wire system
a
b
c
n
Reference
37
Observe Constant Three-Phase P and Q in Excel spreadsheet
1_Single_Phase_Three_Phase_Instantaneous_Power.xls
Vmag = 1
Vang = 0
Imag = 0.90 90
Iang = -30 150
Phase A Phase A Phase A P Q Phase B Phase B Phase B Phase C Phase C Phase C A+B+C Q
wt v(t) I(t) p(t) 0.389711 0.225 v(t) I(t) p(t) v(t) I(t) p(t) p(t) 0.675
0 1 0.779423 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 -0.5 -0.779423 0.389711 -0.5 5.51E-17 -2.76E-17 1.169134 0.675
2 0.999391 0.794653 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.469472 -0.763243 0.358321 -0.529919 -0.03141 0.016645 1.169134 0.675
4 0.997564 0.808915 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.438371 -0.746134 0.327084 -0.559193 -0.062781 0.035107 1.169134 0.675
6 0.994522 0.822191 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.406737 -0.728115 0.296151 -0.587785 -0.094076 0.055296 1.169134 0.675
8 0.990268 0.834465 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.374607 -0.70921 0.265675 -0.615661 -0.125256 0.077115 1.169134 0.675
10 0.984808 0.845723 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.34202 -0.68944 0.235802 -0.642788 -0.156283 0.100457 1.169134 0.675
12 0.978148 0.855951 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.309017 -0.66883 0.20668 -0.669131 -0.187121 0.125208 1.169134 0.675
14 0.970296 0.865136 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.275637 -0.647406 0.178449 -0.694658 -0.21773 0.151248 1.169134 0.675
16 0.961262 0.873266 0.839437 0.389711 0.225 -0.241922 -0.625193 0.151248 -0.71934 -0.248074 0.178449 1.169134 0.675
18 0.951057 0.880333 0.837246 0.389711 0.225 -0.207912 -0.602218 0.125208 -0.743145 -0.278115 0.20668 1.169134 0.675
20 0.939693 0.886327 0.832875 0.389711 0.225 -0.173648 -0.578509 0.100457 -0.766044 -0.307818 0.235802 1.169134 0.675
22 0.927184 0.891241 0.826345 0.389711 0.225 -0.139173 -0.554095 0.077115 -0.788011 -0.337146 0.265675 1.169134 0.675
24 0.913545 0.89507 0.817687 0.389711 0.225 -0.104528 -0.529007 0.055296 -0.809017 -0.366063 0.296151 1.169134 0.675
26 0.898794 0.897808 0.806944 0.389711 0.225 -0.069756 -0.503274 0.035107 -0.829038 -0.394534 0.327084 1.169134 0.675
28 0.882948 0.899452 0.794169 0.389711 0.225 -0.034899 -0.476927 0.016645 -0.848048 -0.422524 0.358321 1.169134 0.675
30 0.866025 0.9 0.779423 0.389711 0.225 6.13E-17 -0.45 -2.76E-17 -0.866025 -0.45 0.389711 1.169134 0.675
32 0.848048 0.899452 0.762778 0.389711 0.225 0.034899 -0.422524 -0.014746 -0.882948 -0.476927 0.421102 1.169134 0.675
34 0.829038 0.897808 0.744316 0.389711 0.225 0.069756 -0.394534 -0.027521 -0.898794 -0.503274 0.452339 1.169134 0.675
36 0.809017 0.89507 0.724127 0.389711 0.225 0.104528 -0.366063 -0.038264 -0.913545 -0.529007 0.483272 1.169134 0.675
38 0.788011 0.891241 0.702308 0.389711 0.225 0.139173 -0.337146 -0.046922 -0.927184 -0.554095 0.513748 1.169134 0.675
Instantaneous Power in Single-Phase Circuit
-1.5
0
1.5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
va
ia
pa
P
Q
Instantaneous Power in Three-Phase Circuit
-1.5
0
1.5
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
va
ia
vb
ib
vc
ic
pa+pb+pc
Q
38

The p hasors are rotating counter - clockwise .
The magnitude of line - to - line voltage phasors is 3 times the magnitude of line - to - neutral voltage phas ors.
V
bn

V
ab
= V
an
V
bn

V
bc
=
V
b n
V
c n

V
an

V
cn

30
120
Imaginary
Real
V
ca
= V
cn
V
an

39

Conservation of power requires that the magnitudes of delta currents I
ab
, I
ca
, and I
bc
are
3
1

times the magnitude of line currents I
a
, I
b
, I
c
.
V
an

V
bn

V
cn

Real
Imaginary
V
ab
= V
an
V
bn

V
bc
=
V
bn
V
cn

30
V
ca
= V
cn
V
an

I
a

I
b

I
c

I
ab

I
bc

I
ca

I
b

I
c

I
a b

I
ca

I
bc

I
a

a
c
b
Vab +
Balanced Sets Add to Zero in Both
Time and Phasor Domains

I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0

V
an
+ V
b n
+ V
cn
= 0

V
ab
+ V
bc
+ V
ca
= 0
Line currents I
a
, I
b
, and I
c

Delta currents I
ab
, I
bc
, and I
ca

40

The Two Above Loads are Equivalent in Balanced Systems
(i.e., same line currents I
a
, I
b
, I
c
and phase-to-phase voltages V
ab
, V
bc
, V
ca
in both cases)
3Z
3Z 3Z
a
c
b
V
ab
+
I
a

I
b

I
c

Z
Z Z
a
c
b
V
ab
+
I
a

I
b

I
c

n
41

The Two Above Sources are Equivalent in Balanced Syst ems
(i.e., same line currents I
a
, I
b
, I
c
and phase - to - phase voltages V
ab
, V
bc
, V
ca
in both cases )
a
c
b
V
ab
+
I
a

I
b

I
c

V
a n

a
c
b
V
ab
+
I
a

I
b

I
c

n
+

42

Z
Z
Z
a
b
V
ab
+
I
a

I
b

I
c

c
n
I
n

KCL: I
n
= I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c

But for a balanced set,
I
a
+ I
b
+ I
c
= 0, so I
n
= 0
Ground (i.e., V = 0)
The Experiment: Opening and closing the switch has no effect because I
n
is already zero for a three - phase
balanced set. Since no current flows, even if there is a resistance in the grounding path, we must conclude that
V
n
= 0 at the neutral point (or equivalent neutral point) of any balanced three phase load or source in a bala nced
system. This allows us to draw a one - line diagram (typically for phase a) and solve a single - phase problem.
Solutions for phases b and c follow from the phase shifts that must exist.
43

Balanced three - phase systems, no matter if they are delta
connected, wye connected, or a mix, are easy to solve if you
follow these steps :
1. Convert the entire circuit to an equivalent wye with a
ground ed neutral .
2. Draw the one - line diagram for phase a , recognizing that
phase a has one third of the P and Q .
3. Solve th e one - line diagram for line - to - neutral voltages and
line currents .
4. If needed, compute l ine - to - neutral voltages and line currents
for phases b and c using the 120 relationships.
5. If needed, compute l ine - to - line voltages and delta currents
using the 3 and 30 relationships.
a
n
a
n
Z
load

+
Van

Z
l ine

I
a

a
c
b
V
ab
+
3Z
load

a
c
b
I
b

I
a

I
c

Z
l ine

Z
l ine

Z
l ine

3Z
load

3Z
load

The One - Line
Diagram
44
Now Work a Three-Phase Motor Power Factor
Correction Example
A three-phase, 460V motor draws 5kW with a power factor of 0.80
lagging. Assuming that phasor voltage V
an
has phase angle zero,

Find phasor currents I
a
and I
ab
and (note I
ab
is inside
the motor delta windings)

Find the three phase motor Q and S

How much capacitive kVAr (three-phase) should be connected in
parallel with the motor to improve the net power factor to 0.95?

Assuming no change in motor voltage magnitude, what will be the
new phasor current I
a
after the kVArs are added?
45
Now Work a Delta-Wye Conversion Example
The 60Hz system shown below is balanced. The line-to-line voltage of the source is 460V.
Resistors R are each 5.













Part a. If each Z is (90 + j45), determine the three-phase complex power delivered by the
source, and the three-phase complex power absorbed by the delta-connected Z loads.

Part b. If
an
V
~
at the source has phase angle zero, find
' '
~
b a
V at the load.


Z
Z
Z
Part c. Draw a phasor diagram that shows line currents Ia, Ib, and Ic, and
load currents Iab, Ibc, and Ica.
46
3. Transformers
47
Transformer Core Types
48
High-Voltage Grid Transformers, 100s of MW
49
Single-Phase Transformer

Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V

Turns ratio 7200:240
(30 : 1)
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding)

50
Short Circuit Test
Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V

Turns ratio 7200:240
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding)

Short circuit test: Short circuit
the 240V-side, and raise the
7200V-side voltage to a few
percent of 7200, until rated
current flows. There is almost
no core flux so the
magnetizing terms are
negligible.
sc
sc
s s
I
V
jX R
~
~
= +
+
Vsc
-
Isc
51
Open Circuit Test
Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V

Turns ratio 7200:240
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding)

+
Voc
-
Open circuit test: Open circuit
the 7200V-side, and apply
240V to the 240V-side. The
winding currents are small, so
the series terms are negligible.
oc
oc
m m
I
V
jX R
~
~
|| =
Ioc
52
Single Phase Transformer.
Percent values are given
on transformer base.

Winding 1
kv = 7.2, kVA = 125

Winding 2
kv = 0.24, kVA = 125

%imag = 0.5

%loadloss = 0.9

%noloadloss = 0.2

%Xs = 2.2
Rs
jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V
Magnetizing
current
No
load
loss
Xs
Load
loss
3. If standard open circuit and short circuit
tests are performed on this transformer, what
will be the Ps and Qs (Watts and VArs)
measured in those tests?
1. Given the standard percentage values below for a 125kVA transformer,
determine the Rs and Xs in the diagram, in .
2. If the Rs and Xs are moved to the 240V side, compute the new values.
53
Rs
jXs

Ideal
Transformer

Rm jXm

X / R Ratios for Three-Phase Transformers
345kV to 138kV, X/R = 10
Substation transformers (e.g., 138kV to 25kV or 12.5kV, X/R = 2, X = 12%
25kV or 12.5kV to 480V, X/R = 1, X = 5%
480V class, X/R = 0.1, X = 1.5% to 4.5%
54
Linear Scale Log10 Scale
Saturation relative permeability decreases rapidly after 1.7 Tesla
Relative permeability drops from about 2000 to about 1 (becomes air core)
Magnetizing inductance of the core decreases, yielding a highly peaked
magnetizing current
55
Transformer Core Saturation

-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
A
m
p
e
r
e
s
Magnetizing Current for Single-Phase
25 kVA. 12.5kV/240V Transformer.
THDi = 76.1%, Mostly 3
rd
Harmonic.
Log10 Scale
Linear Scale
No DC
No DC
With DC
56
Cold Core Test on 1kVA Transformer
(120V Winding Excited, 480V Winding Connected to 25 Ohm Resistor, Vdc = 150V on 6500 uF)
MG, March 12, 2009
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
-0.005 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025
Time - Seconds
T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

i
n

1
2
0
V

W
i
n
d
i
n
g
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
T
r
a
n
s
f
o
r
m
e
r

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

A
c
r
o
s
s

1
2
0
V

W
i
n
d
i
n
g
\
Apply a DC Voltage to a Transformer and Watch It Saturate
Where there is a DC current, there is a DC voltage, and vice-versa
Voltage
Current
Saturates
57
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Est. Magnetizing Amps
V
o
l
t
-
S
e
c
o
n
d
s
B-H Curve Constructed from V-I Measurements Shows Linear
Region, Saturation, Hysteresis, and Residual Magnetism
Shape of normal
hysteresis path
Severe hysteresis
Residual
magnetism
Residual
magnetism
Distribution Feeder Loss
Example
Annual energy loss = 2.40%

Largest component is transformer no-
load loss (45% of the 2.40%)

Transformer No-
Load
45%
Transformer Load
8%
Primary Lines
26%
Secondary Lines
21%
Annual Loss
Demand values for the peak hour of (load + loss) Total kW % of Consump Total kWh % of Consumpt
Consumption/Demand 5665 22222498
Total Loss 173 3.06% 534293 2.40%
Line Loss (Wires) 123 2.18% 250568 1.13%
Transformer Loss (load plus no-load) 50 0.88% 283726 1.28%
Load Loss (Wires and transformers) 144 2.54% 291879 1.31%
No-Load Loss (Transformer magnetizing) 29 0.52% 242414 1.09%
Primary Loss (Includes transformers) 116 2.05% 421316 1.90%
Secondary Loss (No transformers) 57 1.01% 112978 0.51%
Primary Lines (Wires) 66 1.17% 137590 0.62%
Secondary Lines (Wires) 57 1.01% 112978 0.51%
No-Load Loss (Transformer magnetizing) 29 0.52% 242414 1.09%
Transformer Load Loss 21 0.36% 41312 0.19%
Annual Energy At Peak Hour
Modern Distribution Transformer:
Load loss at rated load (I
2
R in conductors) = 0.75% of rated transformer kW.
No load loss at rated voltage (magnetizing, core steel) = 0.2% of rated
transformer kW.
Magnetizing current = 0.5% of rated transformer amperes
59
Single-Phase Transformer
Impedance Reflection from High-Side (H) to Low-Side (L) by the
Square of the Turns Ratio
Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V
Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
7200V 240V
2
7200
240
|
.
|

\
|
s
jX

2
7200
240
|
.
|

\
|
s
R
2
7200
240
|
.
|

\
|
m
jX
2
7200
240
|
.
|

\
|
m
R
2
~
/
~
~
/
~
~
/
~
~
/
~
,
~
~
~
~
so ,
~ ~ ~ ~
,
~
~
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = = = = = =
L
H
L
H
H
H
L
H
H H
L L
H H
L
H
H
L
H
L
L
H
L L H H
L
H
L
H
N
N
N
N
I
N
N
V
I V
I V
I V
Z
Z
N
N
V
V
I
I
I V I V
N
N
V
V
Faradays law Conservation of
power
60
Now Work a Single-Phase Transformer Example
Open circuit and short circuit tests are performed on a single - phase, 7200:240V, 25kVA, 60Hz
distribution transformer. The results are:

-
Short circuit test (short circuit the low - voltage side, energize the high - voltage side so that
rated current flows , an d measure P
s c
and Q
s c
). Measure d P
s c
= 400W, Q
s c
= 200VAr .

-
Open circuit test (open circuit the high - voltage side, apply rated voltage to the low - voltage
side , and measure P
oc
and Q
oc
). Measure d P
oc
= 100W, Q
oc
= 250VAr .

Determine the four impedance val ues (in ohms) for the transformer model shown.

Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
7200:240V
Rm jXm
7200V 240V

Turns ratio 7200:240
(30 : 1)
(but approx. same amount of
copper in each winding)

61
Y - Y
A three-phase transformer can be three separate
single-phase transformers, or one large
transformer with three sets of windings

N1:N2
N1:N2
N1:N2

Rs jXs

Ideal
Transformer
N1 : N2
Rm jXm
Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model
A

N
Reflect side 1 wye ohms to side 2 wye ohms
by multiplying by [N2 / N1]^2
Standard 345/138kV autotransformers, GY - GY,
with a tertiary 12.5kV winding to provide
circulating 3
rd
harmonic current
62
-
For Delta-Delta Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

N1:N2
N1:N2
N1:N2

Ideal
Transformer




3
Rs
3
2
:
3
1 N N

3
jXs

3
Rm

3
jXm
A

N
Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model
Reflect side 1 delta ohms to side 2 delta
ohms by multiplying by [N2 / N1]^2
Convert side 2 delta ohms to wye ohms by
dividing by 3
Convert side 1 delta ohms to wye ohms by
dividing by 3
Above circuit results in the proper reflection.
Note that N2/Sqrt3 divided by N1/Sqrt3 is the
same as N2 divided by N1
63
- Y
For Delta-Wye Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

N1:N2
N1:N2
N1:N2

Ideal
Transformer




3
Rs
2 :
3
1
N
N

3
jXs

3
Rm

3
jXm
A

N
Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model
Reflect side 1 delta ohms to side 2 wye ohms
by multiplying by [N2 / N1]^2
Convert side 1 delta ohms to wye ohms by
dividing by 3
Above circuit results in the proper reflection
Standard building entrance
and substation transformers.
high side/ GY low side
64
Y -
For Wye-Delta Connection Model, Convert the
Transformer to Equivalent Wye-Wye

N1:N2
N1:N2
N1:N2

Ideal
Transformer



3
2
: 1
N
N
jXs
Rm
jXm
A

N
Rs
Wye-Equivalent One-Line Model
So, for all configurations, the equivalent wye-wye transformer ohms can be
reflected from one side to the other using the three-phase bank line-to-line
turns ratio
Reflect side 1 wye ohms to side 2 delta ohms
by multiplying by [N2 / N1]^2
Convert side 2 impedances from delta ohms
to wye ohms by dividing by 3
Above circuit results in the proper reflection
65
For wye-delta and delta-wye configurations, there is a
phase shift in line-to-line voltages because
the individual transformer windings on one side
are connected line-to-neutral, and on the other
side are connected line-to-line
But there is no phase shift in any of the
individual transformers
This means that line-to-line voltages on the
delta side are in phase with line-to-neutral
voltages on the wye side
Thus, phase shift in line-to-line voltages from
one side to the other is unavoidable, but it can
be managed by standard labeling to avoid
problems caused by paralleling transformers