NEMATODES

Classification of Helminths
Kingdom Metazoa

Phylum Platyhelminthes

Class Cestodea

Phylum Nemathelminthes

Class Trematodea

Class Nematodea

Classification of Nematodes
habitat
mode of infection

egg or larval production

musculature
systematic

Habitat of nematodes in hosts

intestine

somatic

subcutaneous
Large intestine

Small
intestine

Loa loa
Onchocerca

lymphatic

Dracunculus

body cavity
Enterobius

Ascaris

Trichuris

Hookworms
Strongyloides
Trichinella
Capillaria

Mansonella spp.

conjunctiva
Loa loa

NEMATODE
Lay eggs

Hatch larvae

(oviparous)

Ascaris
Trichuris
Hookworms

Enterobius

(viviparous)

Larva
hatch out immediately
from egg
(ovo-viviparous)

Wuchereria
Brugia
Dracunculus
Trichinella

Strongyloides stercoralis

Classification
Subclass

Order

Aphasmidia Enoplida

Phasmida

Superfamily

Species

Trichinelloidea

Trichinella spiralis, Trichuris

trichuria, Capillaria hepatica,
C. philippinensis.
Rhabditida Rhabdiasoidea
Strongyloides stercoralis, S.
fulleborni
Strongylida Ancylostomatoidea Ancylostoma duodenale, A.
brazillense, A. ceylanicum,
Necator Americanus
Trichostrongyloidea Trichostrongylus orientalis
Metastrongyloidea

Angiostrongylus cantonensis,
A. costaricensis,

Classification (cont.)
Subclass

Order

Phasmida Oxyurida

Superfamily

Species

Oxyuroidea

Enterobius vermicularias

Ascaridida Ascaridoidea

Spirurida

Dracunculoidea
Filariodea

Gnathosmatoidea

Ascaris lumbricoides,
Toxocara canis, T. cati,
Anasakis Sp.,
Pseudoterranov sp.,
Contracaecum osculatum
Dracunculus medinensis
Wuchereria bancrofti,
Brugia malayi, B. timori,
Onchocerca volvulus, Loa
loa, Dirofilaria immitis,
Mansonella streptocerca, M.
pesrtan, M. ozzardi.
Gnathostoma spinigerum

cylinder, elongated
unsegmented
no appendage
taper at both ends
bilaterally symmetrical
various sizes
body covered with cuticle

Ascaris lumbricoides

3 fine toothed lips

2 ventral lips
1 dorsal lip
covered with sensory papillae

Life cycle A. lumbricoides

Toxocara spp

Life cycle

Ancylostoma duodenale

 On the ventral side of

the mouth, there are
two pairs of teeth

 The egg is about

60 x 40 m in size,
thin eggshell,
nearly colourless
and transparent
Contain egg cells
under cleavage,
many in the fresh
stool are in the
four-cell stage

Necator americanus
Female is 9-11 mm
long and male
is 7-9 mm long,
copulatory bursa
is exist
Form S-like appearance
in alcohol 70%
cutting plates (chitin)

Larva rhabditiform nematoda

long buccal cavity

double bulb esophagus

Larva filariform

Zoonotic Ancylostomatidae
Ancylostoma braziliense :
a pair of large ventral
teeth in the oral cavity
Ancylostoma ceylanicum :
a pair of large outer
ventral teeth and
a pair of small
inner ventral teeth
Ancylostoma caninum :
three pairs of ventral teeth

Life cycle

Strongyloides stercoralis

Life cycle

Trichuris trichiura
Divided into two parts:
thin anterior and
thick posterior
Female: 3.4-5 cm long
with a linear caudal end
Male: 3-4.5 cm with
a curled caudal end

 Barrel-shaped egg,
50-54 x 20-30 m,
pores at both ends

Life cycle

Capillaria philippinensis
Adults are very thin,
female is 5-7cm,
male is 2-4cm long

Life cycle

Enterobius vermicularis
Female is 8-13 mm long
Male is 2-5 mm long
Cuticular elevation forms cephalic
alae
Female has
spindle-shaped and pointed tail,
the greater part o/t body
is occupied by the uterus
filled with eggs
Male has curled tail end

 Egg is usually
containing a completed
larva
50-60 x 20-30 m
One side o/t eggshell
is flatter than the other
Nearly colorless and
transparent eggshell

Life cycle

Trichinella spiralis
Female 2.2-3 mm,and male
1.2-1.5 mm long with a pair
of conical/copulatory
papillae as sexual tool

Male

Female

 Larva coils and

encapsulate in
the striated muscle

Gnathostoma spinigerum
Head-bulb with
hooks aligned in
4-8 concentric lines

 Eggs are 62-79 x 36-42 m

Originally colorless
Bulge (operculum)
at one end, where
the hatching occurs
Fertilized eggs
contain eggcells

 First stage larvae

Second stage larvae

Third stage larvae

Life cycle

Thellazia
Adult is thin and long,
female is 6.2-17 mm,
male is 4.5-13 mm
with curled tail end,
milk-white in color
Chitinoid capsule in
the anterior part o/t
body

Angiostrongylus cantonensis
Adult is thin and long
Female is 2.5-4cm,
helical pattern along
the entire length
o/t body (made up
of intestinal tract
intertwined w/ uterus)
Male is about 2cm
with copulatory bursa

Life cycle

Filarial group of nematodes

Wuchereria bancrofti

Lymphatic filariasis

Brugia malayi
Loa loa

Mansonella spp.
Oncocherca volvulus
Dirofilaria

Subcutanoeus / tissue
filariasis

Wuchereria bancrofti
Adults look like thin and long threads
Female is 80-100 mm, male is 25-45 mm
with spiral-shaped tail

Microfilaria W. bancrofti
Wuchereria bancrofti

Sheath not well stained

Graceful body curve
Discrete body nuclei
No terminal nucleus

Microfilaria W. bancrofti
Wuchereria bancrofti
Short cephalic space,
ratio 1:1
Tapered tail
No terminal nucleus

Microfilaria

W. bancrofti
Microfilaria is sheated
and smooth-shaped,
0.24-0.35 mm long
Regular nucleus,
no terminal nucleus
Cephalic space:
the length is equal
with the width

Culex sp.

Anopheles sp.

Mansonia uniformis

Life cycle

Microfilaria Brugia malayi

Brugia malayi
Wrinkled body
curve
Overlapping body
nuclei
Sheath stained
pinkish-red

Microfilaria Brugia malayi

Brugia malayi
Cephalic space ratio about
1:2
Tapered tail
Presence of sub-terminal
and terminal nucleus
(terminal nucleus is a solitary
nucleus separated from the
rest of body nuclei)

Microfilaria B. malayi

Microfilaria B. malayi

Life cycle

Microfilaria Brugia timori

Brugia timori
Overlapping body
nuclei
Sheath does not stain
pinkish (bluish)

 Brugia timori
Cephalic space
elongated, ratio 1:3
Tapered tail
Presence of subterminal and terminal
nucleus

Onchocerca volvulus
Female is 30-50 cm, male is only 2-4.5cm
long

 Microfilaria
Onchocerca
volvulus
Large
Un-sheath
Body nuclei
separated,
moderately compact

Microfilaria O. volvulus
Microfilaria is 0.22-0.36mm,
no terminal nucleus
Cephalic space ratio
1:2
Tapered and flexed

Life cycle

Loa loa
Female is 5-7cm,
and male is 3-3.5cm
long

Microfilaria Loa loa

Loa loa
Body nuclei as
compact column of
nuclei that extends
to the tail
Sheath does not pick
up stain (outlined by
RBC)

 Loa loa
Short cephalic space,
ration 1:1
Tapered tail
No terminal nucleus

Life cycle

Dracunculus medinensis
Adult female is very
thin and long,
70-120cm long,
male is very short,
being only 4cm long

Life cycle

TREMATODES

leaf-like
unsegmented
hermaphrodite
except Schistosoma sp.
no hooks but suckers
GIT incomplete
- no anus
body cavity absent

Blood flukes

Schistosoma japonicum
Shistosoma mansoni

Schistosoma haematobium

Schistosoma spp

Schistosoma japonicum

S. japonicum male
smooth cuticular
surface

Bifurcated

tail cercaria

Life cycle Schistosoma spp

Eggs of S. japonicum
Egg is short ovoid
and not operculated,
has lateral knob,
and contains
miracidium

Life cycle

Schistosoma mansoni

S. mansoni male
- distinct tuberculated
surface

Egg of S. mansoni
Egg is large, averaging
150x60 m without
an operculum,
has lateral spine,
and contains
miracidium

Egg of S. haematobium
Egg has terminal spine,
and contains miracidium

Liver flukes

Fasciola hepatica
Fasciola gigantica

Opistorchis viverrini
Clonorchis sinensis

F. hepatica

F. gigantica

Clonorchis sinensis

Opistorchis viverrini

Intestinal flukes
Fasciolopsis buski
Heterophyes heterophyes
Metagonimus yokogawai
Echinostoma spp
Gastrodiscoides hominis

Fasciolopsis buski

Heterophyes heterophyes

Metagonimus yokogawai

Gastrodiscoides hominis

Lung fluke

Paragonimus westermani

Paragonimus westermani

CESTODES

Class Cestodea
tape-like

segmented
hermaphrodite
hooks and
suckers
GIT nil
body cavity
absent

Taenia saginata

 1-2k proglottids
(lateral uterine
branches 15-20 pairs
Genital pore is one
for each segment
in irregular site

 Egg is elliptical
(viable up to 159 days)

Egg contains an
oncosphere (hexacanth
embryo) covered by
embryophore,
a thick wall with
radial pattern

Taenia solium
Less than 1000
proglottids, body length
is ranging between
2 and 3 m
Less lateral uterine
branches, about
7-12 pairs

 The scolex has four

suckers and hooks
arranged around
the rostellum

 The larvaecalled
cysticercus cellulocae
Evagination to be
six hooked four
suckers larva
(onchophere) in
small intestine

The egg is similar

to that of T. saginata,
only it is nearly
spherical while the
lattest is elliptical

Dypilidium caninum

Dypilidium caninum
Proglottids are trapezoidal
two genital pores
situated at the
middle of both sides
The scolex has four
suckers and 40-60
hooks arranged in
3-5 lines around
the retractile

 The egg is spherical

like that of
H. diminuta but
smaller, measuring
40-50m in
diameter
One egg pocket
contains egg

Hymenoloepis nana

Hymenolepis nana
Scolex has 4 suckers
and a short rostellum
with 20-30 retractable
hooks

 Egg is elliptical, average

50x40 m
The eggshell and embryophore
are thinand almost colourless,
slightly thickened at both poles
From each pole 4-8 threadlike
structure called polar filament
run between the two envelopes
Eggs contains hexacanth embryo

Hymenolepis diminuta
The scolex has four
suckers but no hooks

The eggs are spherical

w/ diameter 60-80 m
The nodes and
filamentous substance
are not usually seen
Contains hexacanth
embryo

Echinococcus granulosus
It is only 3-6 mm long
Consist of four segments:
1.Scolex
2.Immature segment
3.Mature segmen
4.Gravid segment

 The scolex has four suckers & 32-40

rostellar hooks
The structure of mature proglottid is
similar to that of Taenia

The egg closely

resembles that of
Taenia in size
and morphology

 The larva is called

unilocular echinococcus
or hydatid cyst
The cyst is filled w/
pale yellow fluid
The wall is composed
o/t outer and inner layer
1. Outer: cuticular or laminated layer
2. Inner: germinal layer

Dyphillobothriidae

 Genital pore is situated

in the ventroanterior
o/t segment
The uterus is situated
approximately in
the center of each
segment, has a
rossette shape
Gravid segments:
width is bigger than
length (2-7mm x 15-20mm)

The scolex is small,

with a ventral and
a dorsal bothrium
(suctorial grooves)

 Egg: ellipsoid shape,

light operculum,
contains ovum cells

Bertiella studeri

 The scolex is subglobus, has four suckers,

rudiment rostellum w/ no hooks
The gravid segment is very thick,
passively pass out w/ feces in 10-20
segments
Each segment consist of one genital pore
situated at the middle of one side,
regularly

 Each segment consist of one genital pore

situated at the middle of one side,
regularly
The egg has irregular shape, 45-50 m in
diameter
Contains a small hexacanth embryo

PROTOZOA

INTRODUCTION TO PROTOZOA

ectoplasm

endoplasm
nucleus

Limiting cell
membrane

Cytoplasm
ectoplasm locomotor
apparatus
endoplasm
- nucleus
- vacuoles
- mouth

- excretory
pore

Nucleus

karyosome

compact
chromatoid
bar
peripheral
chromatin

Chromatin
granules

PATHOGENICITY
Non-pathogen

Pathogen

(commensal)
Intestinal amoebas

Intestinal flagellates

intestinal

tissues
blood
free living

Atrial

REPRODUCTION
asexual

binary fission
multiple
fission

(schizogony)
endodyogeny
endopolygamy

sexual

conjugation
gametogony

Classification of Protozoa
phylum

Sarcomastigophora

mastigophora

sarcodina

flagellate

amoeba

Apicomplexa

sporozoa

class

Ciliophora

Microspora

ciliate

microsporidias

Amoebae
Classification

Pathogenic amoebae:
1. Entamoeba histolytica
2. Entamoeba gingivalis

Pathogenic free-living
amoebae:
1. Naegleria gruberi
2. Achantamoeba
castellani

Non pathogenic
amoebae:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Entamoeba coli
Entamoeba hartmani
Endolimax nana
Iodamoeba butschlii
Dientamoeba fragilis

Entamoeba histolytica
Terminology

Superclass:
Class
:
Order
:
Family
:

Sarcodina
Rhizopodea
Amoebida
Entamoebidae

Entamoeba histolytica
Morphology

E. histolytica has two stadiums

during the life cycle:
1. Trophozoite (involves histolytic and
minuta form)
2. Cyst

Motile apparatus is pseudopodium

(ectoplasm)

Entamoeba histolytica
Morphology
Histolytic trophozoite is 2040m:
one entamoeba nucleus
with central karyosome
(green arrow)
large pseudopodium (blue
arrow) as the motile organ
endoplasm contains
erythrocytes and granules

Entamoeba histolytica
Morphology

Trophozoite with ingested RBC

E. histolytica
Morphology

Trophozoite in
vary feature and
stain

Entamoeba histolytica
Morphology
Precyst (minuta trophozoite)
Sized 10-20 m
Less motile and rounding
up
No erythrocyte is found in
the endoplasm, only rough
granule, glycogen vacuole,
and chromatoid bars
present (arrowed)

Entamoeba histolytica
Morphology
Cyst
Sized 5-20 m
Four daughter nuclei
(arrowed)
Chromatoid bars are
occasionally present
Thin wall
Remain viable for about 10
days and up to 30 days in
water

Entamoeba gingivalis
Morphology
Morphologically
similar to Entamoeba

histolytica

About 3-10x larger

than a white blood
cell (PMN)
It attacks and
destroys living red
and white blood cells

Entamoeba gingivalis
Morphology

PMN leokocytes (blue arrows) surrounding

the parasite
PMN shown in the endoplasm (red arrows)

Entamoeba coli
Morphology
Trophozoite
Sized 15-30m
Small pseudopodium
No erythrocytes in the
endoplasm
Single nucleus with eccentric
karyosome (green arrow) and
irregular chromatin
Similar to E. histolytica
precyst

Entamoeba coli
Morphology
Cyst
Sized 12-20m
Up to 8 nuclei,
regarding to the
development
Thick wall
Life cycle is similar to
that of E. histolytica

Non-Pathogenic Amoeba
Iodamoeba butschlii
Trophozoite
Measures usually 12 to 15
m (range 8 to 20 m)
Has one nucleus with a large,
usually central karyosome
Cytoplasm is coarsely
granular, vacuolated and
can contain bacteria, yeasts
or other materials

Non-Pathogenic Amoeba
Iodamoeba butschlii
Cyst
Measures usually 10 to 12
m (range 5 to 20 m)
Shape varies from ovoidal to
rounded
Has only one nucleus with a
large, usually eccentric
karyosome
Characteristically contain a
large glycogen vacuole
(iodophil body) arrowed

Balantidium coli
Morphology
Trophozoite
Oval or bean-shaped
Measures 60-150
microns in length
Covered by ciliae
Contains cytostome,
bean-shaped
macronucleus,
micronucleus, and
contractile vacuoles

Balantidium coli
Morphology
Cyst
Rounded with thick wall
Measures 40-70 m
Ciliae still exist inside the
wall
Contains macronucleus,
micronucleus, and
vacuoles

Flagellates
Classification

Intestinal flagellates

Pathogenic flagellates:

Giardia lamblia

Trichomonas vaginalis

Non-pathogenic
flagelates:
1. Chilomastix mesnili
2. Trichomonas hominis
3. Retortamonas
intestinalis
4. Enteromonas hominis

Reproductive tract
flagellates

Blood flagellates
1. Trypanosoma spp.
2. Leishmania spp.

Flagellates
Classification

Giardia lamblia
Terminology

Superclass: Mastigophora
Class
: Zoomastigophorea
Family
: Hexamitidae

Giardia lamblia
Morphology
Trophozoite
Average about 15 m in
length
Has a distinct "tear-drop"
shape
Bi-nucleated, two suckers in
the concave anterior part,
two parabasal bodies, two
axostyle, and 4 pairs of
flagellas

Giardia lamblia
Morphology
Cyst
Average 8-13 m in size
Ovoid shape
Immature cyst contains 2
nuclei, and the mature 4
nuclei, and remnants of the
axostyle
Thick and transparent wall

Giardia lamblia
Morphology

Trichomonas vaginalis
Morphology
It requires no cystic stage
Trophozoite is pyriformshaped and single
nucleated
Has 4 anterior flagella,
cytostome, axostyle,
undulating membrane, and 1
posterior flagellum

Trypanosoma gambiense
Morphology

Fusiform shaped
Flagellated

Trypanosoma gambiense
Morphology

Leishmania donovani
Morphology

Promastigotes

About Toxoplasma gondii

Oocyst: produced in cats intestine through gametogony

(sexually reproduction). Each oocyst contains two
sporocysts

About Toxoplasma gondii

Tachyzoites: note the characteristic crescent type! It can

infect any cell and body tissue but erythrocyte

About Toxoplasma gondii

Zoitocysts filled with bradyzoites

Plasmodiums
Terminology

Phylum Apicomplexa
Subphylum Sporozoa
Class Telosporea
Subclass Hmosporina
Family Plasmodiid
Vectored primarily by female Anopheles
mosquito

Plasmodiums
Life cycle

Complex life cycle, involving both sexual and

asexual phases
Asexual phase, called schizogony, occurs in
the vertebrate (which is intermediate host)
Sexual phase, called sporogony, occurs in the
insect, the definitive host

Life Cycle
Exoerytrocytic Cycle in Man

Anopheline mosquito injects infective

sporozoites into man
Migrate to liver parenchyma where schizogony
begins (called exoerythrocytic/ preerythrocytic
schizogony), produces exoerythrocytic schizonts
exoerythrocytic merozoits invade RBC
In P. vivax and P. ovale, dormant exoerythrocytic
schizonts (hipnozoits) occurs

Life Cycle
Erythrocytic Cycle in Man

When exoerythrocytic merozoits invade RBC,

erytrocytic cycle begins
Merozoits ring form trophozoits mature
trophozoits schizonts erythrocytic
schozogony (erythrocytic) merozoits
gametocytogenesis gametocytes
(macrogametocytes & microgametocytes)

Life Cycle
Sexual Phase in Mosquito

After a mosquito has ingested gametocytes,

fertilization occurs zygotes ookinete
oocyst bursts out sporozoits reach
salivary glands
When the mosquito injects saliva while
obtaining a blood meal, it also injects
sporozoits into human host
Only female Anopheles take blood meals

Plasmodium vivax
Morphology in Stained Preparation

The earliest
erythrocytic trophozoit
(ring form): blue-stained
ring of cytoplasm with a
red chromatin dot

Plasmodium vivax
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Mature ring form: the

plasmodium enlarge, the
rig form becomes
irregular and larger,
Schufners dots
sometimes appear

Plasmodium vivax
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Trophozoit: amoeboid
cytoplasm

Mature trophozoit: the

chromatin in process
of division

Plasmodium vivax
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Schizont: progressive
steps in division
(presegmenting)

Mature schizont: consist

of 8-24 merozoits, usually
12-18

Plasmodium vivax
Morphology of all stadiums

Plasmodium ovale
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Ring form: resembles to that of P. vivax,

chromatin dot is larger
Trophozoit: non-amoeboid, infected RBC is
oval in shape with fimbriation

Plasmodium ovale
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Mature schizont:
contains 6-12 merozoits,
usually 8

Gametocyte: similar to

P. vivax

Plasmodium ovale
Morphology of all stadiums

Plasmodium malariae
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Ring form: compact

cytoplasm
Mature trophozoit: band
form
Schizont: contains 6-12
merozoits, usually 8,
arranged in a rossette
formation
Gametocyte: resembles to
those of P. vivax

Plasmodium malariae
Morphology of all stadiums

Plasmodium falciparum
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Ring form: vary in

shape; double
chromatin, double
infection, accole

Trophozoit: rare in
peripheral blood
after half grown

Plasmodium falciparum
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Schizont: consist of 8-26 merozoits,

usually 8-18, rare in peripheral blood

Plasmodium falciparum
Morphology in Stained Preparation

Microgametocyte: sausage shape,

chromatin diffuse, large nucleus
Macrogametocyte: longer and more
slender, central chromatin, pigment and
nucleus more compact

Plasmodium falciparum
Morphology in Stained Preparation