Tx Line Equations &

Solutions
Tx line can be analyzed by:
a. Maxwells field equationsinvolves
three
space variables
in addition to time variable
b. Distributed circuit methodinvolves
only
one
space
variable in addition to time
variable

Transmission
Line

Types of TL

Analysis of Tx
Line

Analysis of Tx
Line

Analysis of Tx
Line

Analysis of Tx
Line

Analysis of Tx
Line

The dielectric between the conductors

has a not zero conductivity, which is
responsible of a current flowing from
one conductor to the other through the
insulator.

Analysis of Tx
Line

If we ignore loss the

equation become:

These
two
equations
are
called
Telegrapher equations or the Transmission

Analysis of Tx
Line

WAVE
EQUATIONS

PHASE VELOCITY and WAVE

EQUATION

TRANSMISSION-LINE
EQUATIONS

Transmission-Line
Equations
Summation of voltage drop around
the central loop
i (z, t)
v(z, t)
v(z, t) i(z, t) R z Lz
v(z, t) z
(1)
t
z
Rearranging, dividing by z and omitting (z,t) we get
v
i
- Ri L
(2)
z
t

Transmission-Line
Equations
The summation of current at point B:

v(z z , t)
i(z, t) v(z z, t) G z C z
i (z z , t)
t
v(z, t)

v(z, t)
[v(z, t)
z ]G z C z [v(z, t)
z ]
z
t
z
i(z, t) cz
(3)
Rearranging, dividing by z, omitting (z,t) and summing
i
v
z equal to zero Gv C
(4)
z
z

Transmission-Line
Equations

Differentiating eqn (2) wrt z and eqn (4)

wrt
t
and
combining,
the
final
transmission line equation in voltage form:
2v
v
2v
RGv (RC LG) LC 2
(5)
2
z
t
t
Differentiating eqn (2) wrt t and eqn (4)
wrt
z
and
combining,
the
final
transmission line equation in current form:

2i
i
2i
RGi (RC LG) LC 2
2
z
t
t

(6)

Transmission-Line
Equations

Transmission line equations are applicable to

the general transient solution. Voltage and
Current on the line are the functions of both
position z and time t. The instantaneous line
voltage and current are:

v(z, t) ReV(z) e jt

(7)

i(z, t) ReI(z) e jt
(8)
The phasor give the magnitudes and phases of the
sinusoidal function at each position of z and expressed as:
V(z) V e
I(z) I e

V e

I e

(9)
(10)

Where, = +j is the propagation constant

Transmission-Line
Equations

Substitute j for t in equaton (2), (4), (5) and (6)

and divide each equation by e jt , the Tx equation
in frequency domain
dV
ZI
dz
d 2V
2
V
2
dz
Where,

dI
(12) and
YV
dz
d 2I
2
(14) and
I
2
dz

(13)
(15)

Z R j L (16) ; Y=G+j C (17)

and = ZY = +j

(18)

Transmission-Line
Equations

For Lossless line, R=G=0 and transmission line equation:

dV
dI
j LI
(19) and
jCV
(20)
dz
dz
2
2
dV
d I
2
2

LCV
(20)
and

LCI (22)
2
2
dz
dz

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

One possible solution of equation (14) i. e:
2

dV
2
V is:
2
dz
z
z
z j z
z j z
V(z) V e V e V e e V e e
(23)
V and V- are complex quantities
The term e-jz , wave travelling in
positive z direction and ejz , wave
travelling in negative z direction
The quantity

is called the electrical

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

One possible solution of equation (15) i. e:

2

d I
2
I is:
2
dz
z
z
z j z
z j z
I Y0 (V e V e ) Y0 (V e e
V e e ) (24)
Characteristic Impedance of the line is defined as:
1
Z
R j L
Z0

R0 jX 0
Y0
Y
G jC

(25)

Magnitude of Voltage and Current wave

shown in Fig

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

At microwave frequencies R = L and G = C

By using Binomial Expansion, the Propagation
Constant can be expressed as:

= (R j L)(G jC )

R
G
( j ) LC 1
1

L
j

1 R
1 G
j LC 1
1

2
j

L
2
j

1 R
G
j LC 1

2
j

L
j

1
C
L
R
G
j LC

2
L
C

(27)

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

The Attenuation and Phase Constant are:

1
C
L
R
G
2
L
C

(28)

LC

(29)

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

Characteristic Impedance Z0 :
(R j L)
Z0 =

(G jC )

R
G
1
1

j L
j C

1 R
1 G

(30)
1
1

2 j L
2 j C

L
1 R
G
L

1

C
2 j L jC
C

1
The Phase Velocity=v p
(31)

LC
L
C

L
C

1/ 2

1/ 2

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

The product LC is independent of the
size and separation of the conductors
and
depends
on
only
on
the
Permeability and Permittivity of the
insulating medium
If a lossless transmission line used for
microwave frequencies has an air
dielectric
and
contains
no
ferromagnetic
materials,
free-space
parameters can be assumed
1/ LC

The numerical value of

for air
insulated conductor is approximately
equal to the Velocity of Light in vacuum

Solutions of TransmissionLine Equations

vp

LC

1
c 3x108 m / sec
0 0

When the dielectric of lossy MW Tx line is not air

the Phase Velocity is smaller than the Velocity of
1
c
Light in vacum v

r r
actual phase velocity
The Phase Velocity Factor=
velocity of light
v
1
vr

c
r r

REFLECTION
COEFFICIENT AND
TRANSMISSION
COEFFICIENT

Reflection
Coefficient

The travelling wave along the line

contains two components:
a. One travelling in the positive z
direction
b. Other travelling in the negative z
direction
If the load impedance is equal to the
line characteristic impedance; the
reflected travelling wave does not exist

Reflection
Coefficient

A
wave
experiences
partial
transmittance
and
partial
reflectance
when
the
medium
through which it travels suddenly
changes. The reflection coefficient
determines
the
ratio
of
the
reflected wave amplitude to the
incident
wave
amplitude.

Standing Wave
Formation

Standing Wave
Formation

Standing Wave
Formation
The animation depicts two waves moving
through a medium in opposite directions. The
blue wave is moving to the right and the green
wave is moving to the left.
As is the case in any situation in which two
waves meet while moving along the same
medium, interference occurs. The blue wave
and the green wave interfere to form a new
wave pattern known as the resultant. The
resultant in the animation below is shown in
black.
The resultant is merely the result of the two
individual waves - the blue wave and the green

Standing Wave
Formation
of the interference of the two

The result
waves
above is a new wave pattern known as a standing
wave pattern. Standing waves are produced
whenever two waves of identical frequency
interfere with one another while traveling
opposite directions along the same medium.
Standing wave patterns are characterized by
certain fixed points along the medium which
undergo no displacement. These points of no
displacement are called nodes (nodes can be
remembered as points of no displacement). The
nodal positions are labeled by an N in the
animation above.
The nodes are always located at the same location

Standing Wave
Formation

A careful inspection of the above animation will

reveal that the nodes are the result of the
destructive interference of the two interfering
waves. At all times and at all nodal points, the
blue wave and the green wave interfere to
completely destroy each other, thus producing a
Midway
between every consecutive nodal point
node.
are
points
which
undergo
maximum
displacement.
These
points
are
called
antinodes; the anti-nodal nodal positions are
labeled by an AN. Antinodes are points along
the medium which oscillate back and forth
between a large positive displacement and a
large
negative
displacement.
A
careful
inspection of the above animation will reveal

Reflection
Coefficient
Solve the transmission line problem from
the receiving end rather than the sending
end, since the voltage to current
relationship at the load point is fixed by
the load impedance

Incident voltage and Current travelling along tx line

V V e
I I e

Ve

I e

(1)
(2)

Reflection
Coefficient

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Transmission line terminated in a load impedance

Reflection
Coefficient
Current wave interms of Voltage
V z V z
I
e
e
(3)
Z0
Z0
Voltage and Current at receiving end, line length l
Vl V e l Ve l
V l V l
Il
e
e
Z0
Z0

(4)
(5)
l

Vl
V e V e
The load Impedance Zl
Z0
(6)
l
l
Il
V e V e

Reflection
Coefficient
Reflected Voltage or Current
Reflection Coefficient =
Incident Voltage or Current
Vref I ref

(7)
Vinc
I inc
The Reflection Coefficient at the receiving end:
l

Zl Z0
V e

l
V e
Zl Z0

(8)

Reflection
Coefficient

If the load impedance and characteristics

impedances
are
complex
then
the
Reflection Coefficient is also complex

l l e jl

(9)

where, l 1 ; never greater than unity

l =Phase angle between incident and reflected

voltages at the receiving end
The generalized reflection coefficient is defined as:
V e z

V e z

(10)

Reflection
Coefficient

Let z=l-d, then the Reflection Coefficient

at some point located at a distance d
from the receiving
is:
(l d)
end
l

V e
V e
2 d
2 d
d (l d) =
e = l e
l
V e
V e

(11)

Reflection Coefficient at that point can be expressed in

terms of Reflection Coefficeint at the receiving end as:
d l e

2 d 2 j d

l e

2 d 2 j (l 2 d )

(12)

Very important equation fro determining

the reflection coefficient at any point
along the line

Reflection
Coefficient

For lossy line, both the magnitude and

phase of the reflection coefficient are
changing in an inward-spiral way:

Reflection Coefficient for lossy line

Reflection
Coefficient

For a lossless line =0, the magnitude of

Reflection Coefficient remains constant, only
Phase of is changing circularly toward the
generator with an angle of -2d.

Reflection Coefficient for lossless line

Reflection
Coefficient

It is evident that l will zero and there will

be no reflection from the receiving end
when the terminating impedance is equal to
the Characteristic Impedance of the line.
Terminating impedance that differs from
the characteristic impedance will create a
reflected wave traveling towards source.
The reflection, upon reaching the sending
end, will itself be reflected if the source
impedance
differs
from
the
line
characteristic at the sending end.

TRANSMISSION
COEFFICIENT

Transmission
Coefficient

Transmission line terminated in its

Characteristic
Impedance
is
called
Properly
Terminated
line
otherwise
Improperly Terminated line.
There is a Reflection Coefficient at any
point along an improperly terminated line.
Incident power minus Reflected power is
equal to the power transmitted to the
load

Transmission
Coefficient
Z0
2

Power transmitted to Load=1-l

Zl

T2

(13)

T=Transmission Coefficient
I tr
Transmitted Voltage or Current Vtr
T

Incident Voltage or Current

Vinc I inc

Power Transmission on a line

(14)

Transmission
Coefficient

Let the travelling wave at the receiving end

V e

V e = Vtr e

Vtr l
V z V z
and
e
e =
e
Z0
Z0
Zl

(15)
(16)

(16) x Zl and substituting in (15)

l

Zl Z0
V e
l

l
V e
Zl Z0

(17)

Transmission
Coefficient

Now, V e

V e = Vtr e
l

Vtr e
V e
1+
=
l
l
V e
V e

Zl Z0
Vtr
1+
=
=T
Zl Z0
V
2Zl
T=
Zl Z0

(18)

Transmission
Coefficient
The Power carried by two waves in the side
of the incident and reflected waves
Pinr Pinc -Pref

l 2

l 2

(V e ) (V e )

2Z 0
2Z 0

(19)

Transmission
Coefficient
The power carried to the load by the transmitted waves:
l 2

(Vtr e )
Ptr
2Zl

(20)

Putting Pinr =Ptr and using equation (17) and (18)

Zl
2
T (1 l )
Z0
2

(21)

This relation varifies the previous statement

STANDING WAVE AND

STANDING WAVE RATIO
Transmission-line equation consist of
two waves traveling in opposite
directions with unequal amplitude. FIG

Standing
Wave
The equation we have derived:
V(z) V e z V e z V e z e j z Ve z e j z

V e z cos z j sin z V e z cos z j sin z (1)

(V e z V e z ) cos z j (V e z V e z )sin z

Standing
Wave

Standing Wave Pattern/Amplitude of

Wave
For Voltage
no loss line
we can assume V e z and V e z real

The voltage equation Vs V0e j

(2)

Where,
V0 {(V e
(V e

z 2

V e ) cos z

z 2

V e ) sin z}
2

1/2

(3)

Phase Pattern of
Standing Wave

V e z V e z

arctan
tan z
z
z
V e V e

(4)

The Maximum
Amplitude z

Vmax V e

Standing
Wave
z

V e

V e

This occurs at z=n

The Minimum
Amplitude
z

Vmin V e

V e V e

(1 )

(5)

where, n=0, 1, 2...

(1 )

(6)

This occurs at z=(2n-1) / 2 where, n=0, 1, 2...

Standing Wave Pattern in a

Lossy Line

Voltage Standing Wave

Pattern in a Lossless Line

Standing
Wave
Distance Between Maxima and
Minima

The distance between and two successive

maxima and minina is one-half wave length
This occurs at z=n where, n=0, 1, 2...
n
n

n z1
(7)
2 /
2
2
Note that, there is no zeros in the minimum

Standing
Wave
Similarly,
I max I e
I min I e

I e

I e

(1 )

(8)

(1 )

(9)

I e
I e

Standing
Wave

When Positive and Negative wave have equal

amplitude: V e

Ve

i.e. Magnetude

of Reflection Coefficient is unity, the Standing

Wave with zero Phase is:
Vs 2 V e

cos z

(12)

Called Pure Standing Wave

Pure Standing Wave for Current
I s j 2Y0V e z sin z

(13)

Standing
Wave
The Voltage and Current Standing
Waves are 900 out of phase along
the line. The point of zero current
are called the current nodes

Voltage and Current nodes are

interlaced and a quarter wave
apart

Standing
Wave
voltage
and
current

The
may
be
expressed as real functions of time and
space:
jt

vs (z, t) Re[Vs (z) e ] 2 V e

jt

is (z, t) Re[I s (z) e ] 2Y0 V e

cos z cos t (14)

sin z sin t (15)

the amplitudes of these two equations vary sinusoidally

with time;
The voltage is maximum at the instant when the current
is zero and vice versa. Fig.

Pure Standing Wave of

Voltage and Current

STANDING WAVE
RATIO
Standing Wave
Ratio

Standing Wave
Ratio
Standing
results
from

the
simultaneous
presence
of
waves
traveling in opposite directions on a
transmission line.
The ratio of the maximum of the
standing wave pattern to the minimum
is defined as the standing wave ratio

Maximum voltage or current

Standing Wave Ratio=
Mnimum voltage or current

Vmax
Vmin

I max
I min

(16)

Standing Wave
Ratio

Standing wave results from the fact

that two traveling wave component add
in phase at some points and subtract at
other points
The Standing wave ratio of a pure
traveling wave is unity and that of a
pure standing wave is infinite
Standing wave ration of Voltage and
current are identical
When the standing wave ratio is unity,
there is no reflected wave and the line
called a FLAT LINE

Standing Wave
Ratio
The standing wave ratio can not ne
defined on a lossy line because the
standing
wave
pattern
changes
markedly from one position to another
Low loss line the ration remains fairly
constant and it may be defined for
some region
For a lossless line, the ration remains
same throughout the line

Standing Wave
Ratio
the reflected wave is defined

o Since
as
the product of and incident wave and
its reflection coefficient, the standing
wave ratio is related
1 to the reflection
(17)
coefficient by :
1

1
and vice versa
1
1 1

(18)

o FIG
o The standing wave ratio is a positive
real number and never less than unity.
o The magnitude of the reflection
coefficient is never greater than unity

LINE IMPEDANCE AND

ADMITTANCE

FI
G

Line Impedance

V (z)
The Impedance of Tx Line Z=
I(z)

(1)

V=Vinc +Vref V e z +V e z

(2)

I=Iinc +I ref Y0 (V e z -V e z )

(3)

At the sending end z=o (2) and (3)

I s Z s V +V

(4)

I s Z 0 V -V
Is
V
(Z s Z0 )
2
Is
V
(Z s Z0 )
2

(5)
(6)
(7)

Line Impedance
Substituting V and V in (2) and (3)
Is
z
z
V= [( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e ] (8)
2
Is
z
z
I=
[( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e ] (9)
2Z 0
The line Impedance at point z from sending end
z

( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e
Z Z0
z
z
( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e

Line Impedance
The line Impedance at point z=l from Receiving
end interms of Z s and Z 0
l

( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e
Zr Z0
l
l
( Z s Z 0 )e ( Z s Z 0 )e

(11)

The line Impedance can be expressed

interms of Z l and Z 0 ; At z=l, Vr I l Z l
I l Z l V e l +V e l

(12)

I l Z 0 V e l -V e l

(13)

Line Impedance
l

+V e

I l Z l V e
I l Z 0 V e

-V e

(12)
(13)

Solving these two equation for V and V

Il
l
V ( Z l Z 0 )e
2
Il
l
V ( Z l Z 0 )e
2

(14)
(15)

Line Impedance
Substituting these results in (2) and (3)
and letting z=l-d
Il
d
d
V [( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e ] (16)
2
Il
I
[( Z l Z 0 )e d ( Z l Z 0 )e d ] (17)
2Z 0

Line Impedance
The line Impedance any from Receiving
end interms of Z l and Z 0
d

( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e
Zr Z0
d
d
( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e

(18)

The line impedance at the sending end can

be found from (18). Let, l=d
l

( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e
Z s Z0
i
l
( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e

(19)

Line Impedance
These equations can be simplified by
replacing the exponential by
Hyperbolic or Circular functions

The Hyperbolic function obtained from

e

cosh( z ) sinh( z )

At any point from the sending end in terms of

Hyperbolic function
Z s cosh( z ) Z0 sinh( z )
Z= Z0
Z0 cosh( z ) Z s sinh( z )
Z s Z0 tanh( z )
= Z0
Z0 Z s tanh( z )

(21)

Line Impedance
d

( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e
Zr Z0
d
d
( Z l Z 0 )e ( Z l Z 0 )e

(18)

Similarly , from (18), from the Receiving End

in terms of Hyperbolic function
Zl cosh( d ) Z0 sinh( d )
Z= Z0
Z0 cosh( d ) Zl sinh( d )
Zl +Z0 tanh( d )
= Z0
Z0 +Zl tanh( d )

(22)

Line Impedance
The impedance of a lossless line Z0 R0
can be expressed in terms of circular function
Z s cos( z) jR0 sin( z)
Z= R 0
R0 cos( z) jZ s sin( z)
Z s -jR 0 tan( z)
= R0
R0 -jZ s tan( z)

(25)

Zl cos( d ) jR0 sin( d )

Z= R 0
R0 cos( d ) jZl sin( d )
Zl +jR 0 tan( d )
= R0
R0 +jZl tan( d )

(26)

of
Reflection
Coefficient
Re arranging (18)
and substituting =
l

Z l -Z0
Z l Z0

line impedance looking from Receiving end

1 l e 2 d
Z=Z0
1 l e 2 d

(27)

The Reflection Coefficient at a distance d

from receiving end,
l e 2 d l e 2 d e j (l 2 d )

(29)

Then the simple equation at a distance d from

load,

1
Z=Z0
1

(30)

of
Reflection
j
l e is a Coefficient
complex quantity
l e

2 d

(31)

, l 2 d

The Impedance variation along the lossless line

Z(d)=

1 e j
1 e

R0

1 (cos j sin )
1 (cos j sin )

R(d) jX(d) Z(d) e

j d

(32)

of
Reflection
2
Coefficient
1 2 cos

where, Z(d) R0
R(d)=R0
X(d)=R0

1 2 cos
1

(33)

1 2 cos

2 sin
1 2 cos

2 sin
X

(d)=arctan arctan
2
1
R

(34)
(35)

(36)

of
Reflection
Since, =l Coefficient
2 d , then = l 2 if, d
However, cos(l 2 ) cos l and
sin(l 2 ) sin l

then, Z(d)=Z(d+ )=Z(d+ )

(37)

2
Hence, impedance along the lossless line
will be repeated for every interval at
a half-wavelength

of
Reflection
Since, the magnitude
of a reflection coefficient is
Coefficient
related to the standing wave ratio as

1
1

1
and
1

(38)

The line impedance at any location from

the receiving end can be written
j

( 1) ( 1) e
Z=R 0
j
( 1) ( 1) e

(39)

Determination of
Characteristic
Impedance

Determination of Characteristic
Impedance and Propagation Constant
of a given transmission line - take
two measurement
a. Measure
the
sending
end
impedance
end
Z sc with
Z 0 tanh(the
l) receiving
(40)
short-circuited and record the result:
b.
Measure the sending end
impedance with the receiving end
Z oc Z 0 coth(
l)
(41)the result:
open circuited
and record

Determination of
Characteristic
Impedance

Then the Characteristic Impedance of

the measured transmission line is:
Z 0 Z oc Z sc

(42)

And the propagation constant of the

line can be computed from:
Z sc
1
j arctan h
l
Z oc

(43)

NORMALIZED
IMPEDANCE
The Normalized Impedance is defined as:

Z 1
z

r jx
Z0 1

(44)

Lower case letters are commonly

designated for normalized quantities in
describing distributed transmission line
circuits

{Equations
(39),
(40)
and
(44)}Normalized impedance fro a lossless
line
has
the
following
significant
features:

Normalized
Impedance
1.
Maximum Normalized
Impedance
Vmax
1
Z max
zmax

(45)
R0
R0 I min 1
Where zmax is the positive real value and it is
equal to Standing Wave Ratio at the location
of any max voltage on the line

Normalized
Impedance
2.
Minimum Normalized
Impedance

zmin

Vmin
1 1
Z min

(46)
R0
R0 I max 1

Here, zmin is a positive real number but

reciprocal of Standing Wave Ratio at the
location of any min voltage on the line

Normalized
Impedance
3. For every interval of half-wavelength
distance along the line z max or z min is repeated
z max (z) z max (z / 2)

(47)

z min (z) z min (z / 2)

(48)

Normalized
Impedance
4.

Since, Vmax and Vmin are separated by a

quarter-wavelength, z max is equal to reciprocal

of z min for any /4 separation:
1
z max (z /4)
z min (z)

(49)

LINE ADMITTANCE
When a transmission line is branched,
it is better to solve the line equations
for the line voltage, current and
transmitted
power
in
terms
of
admittance rather than impedance.
The characteristic admittance and the
1 admittance are defined as:
generalized
Y
G jB
(50)
0

Z0

1
Y G jB
(51)
Z
Normalized Admittance can be written:
Y
Z 1
y=
g jb (52)
Y0 Z 0 z