Modular Forms in Number

Theory
Karl Mahlburg (HMC 01)
C.L.E. Moore Instructor (MIT)

December 7, 2006

Outline

Sums of squares
Divisor Sums
Fermats Last Theorem
Perfect power Fibonacci numbers
Partition congruences
Modular Forms

Whats the pattern?

70 = (-2)2 + 42 + 72 + 12
773 = 102 + 122 + 232 + 02
1503 = 192 + 22 + (-7)2 + 332
28 = 52 + (-1)2 + (-1)2 + 12
76742198 = 3692 + 87422 + 172 + 4282

Lagranges Theorem
We observed that several integers can be
written as the sum of 4 squares.
Theorem (Lagrange 1770): Every positive
integer is the sum of at most 4 squares.
Proof idea: Norm formulas for quaternions!

Jacobis Enumeration
So, any integer can be written as the sum of 4
squares but in how many different ways?
Lets keep track of both orders and signs
Definition: For a positive integer n,

r4 ( n ) :# n1 , n2 , n3 , n4 Z4 | n12 n22 n32 n42 n

Example:
1 = (1)2 + 02 + 02 + 02
= 02 + (1)2 + 02 + 02
= 02 + 02 + (1)2 + 02
= 02 + 02 + 02 + (1)2
Thus, r4(1) = 8.
Similarly, r4(2) = 24, r4(3) = 32, r4(4) = 24.

Theorem (Jacobi 1829):

r4 (n ) 8 d 32 d .
d | n

4d | n

Proof sketch: Define the generating function

( q) :

n2

1 2q 2q .
4

nZ

Then

r (n)q

n 0

( q) .
4

 Jacobis proof uses elliptic functions to

find the Lambert series expansions
Elliptic functions symmetries in Fourier
transforms (more on this later).

Note: This was the precursor to modern

modular forms!!!

A 2-line proof
(q)4 is a modular form of weight 2 and level
4.
The series

n 0

8 d 32 d q n

| n
4d | n

is also a modular form of this type.

 Nice modular forms lie in finitedimensional vector spaces (actually,

graded rings)
Weight 2 and level 4 forms are only a 2dimensional vector space
2 matching coefficients gives equality!!!

Divisor Sums
Definition:

k n :

d | n

Example: 3(4) = 73, 7(2) = 129

Recall that k(n) is multiplicative.
- But thats not all

Fact:

n 1

7 n : 3 n 120 3 j 3 n j
j 1

Why?
1 240 3 n q n 1 240q 2160q 2 ...
n 1

1 480 7 n q n 1 480q 61920q 2 ...

n 1

are modular forms of weight 4 and 8.

Dimension one 2nd is 1st squared!

Elliptic Curves
Let E denote
solutions to the
equation:
y 2 + y = x 3 - x2

Points over finite fields

Were actually interested in local
behavior:
Fp = finite field with p elements
E(Fp) = solutions to y2 + y = x3 - x2 in Fp

Example:
E(F3) = { (0,0), (0,2), (1,0), (1,2) }

An unrelated(?) series
Define a q-series
f ( q) : q 1 q
n 1

1 q .

n 2

11n 2

This is an eta-product, which are modular forms.

Three main types:

1. Theta functions (quadratic forms)
2. Eisenstein series (divisor sums)
3. Eta-products (infinite products)

An amazing coincidence
f(q) = q + 2q2 q3 + 2q4 + q5 + 2q6 - 2q7 - 2q9 - 2q10 +
q11 - 2q12 + 4q13 + 4q14 q15 - 4q16 - 2q17 +
p

#E(Fp)

b(p)=1st-2nd

-1

-2

11

10

13

17

19

-2

An amazing coincidence
f(q) = q + 2q2 q3 + 2q4 + q5 + 2q6 - 2q7 - 2q9 - 2q10 +
q11 - 2q12 + 4q13 + 4q14 q15 - 4q16 - 2q17 +
p

#E(Fp)

b(p)=1st-2nd

-1

-2

11

10

13

17

19

-2

Modularity of Elliptic Curves

The pattern continues -- if f(q) = a(n) qn,
then

a(p) = b(p)
for (almost all) primes.
Relation to the coefficients of modular form
E is modular.

Theorem (TaniyamaShimura-Wiles 1999):

Every elliptic curve is modular.
In fact, the modular forms always have
weight 2.
The technical statement involves modular
L-functions.

Fermats Last Theorem

Theorem (Wiles-Taylor 1994): If n 3, then
there are no integer solutions to
xn + yn = zn.
Proof Idea: A solution (a, b, c)
A non-modular elliptic curve
Contradicting Taniyama-Shimura!

 This is now known as the modularity

approach.
The Frey curves are
E: y2 = x(x - an)(x - bn)
Important: No repeated roots

an + b n = c n
Discriminant of E is impossible

Impossibility comes from comparing

Galois representations of E and modular
Galois representations.

Approach has other applications

Perfect Power Fibonacci #s

Definition: The Fibonacci numbers are given
by
F0 = 0, F1 = 1,
Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn .
The Lucas numbers start with
L0 = 2, L1 = 1.

The sequences begin:

{Fn }= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,

144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

{Ln }= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,

199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,

The sequences begin:

{Fn }= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,

144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

{Ln }= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,

199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,
There are a few squares

The sequences begin:

{Fn }= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,

144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

{Ln }= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,

199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,
There are a few squares
There are cubes

The sequences begin:

{Fn }= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,

144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

{Ln }= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,

199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,
There are a few squares
There are cubes
Appears to be no more?

The sequences begin:

{Fn }= 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,

144, 233, 377, 610, 987, 1597,

{Ln }= 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, 47, 76, 123,

199, 322, 521, 843, 1364,
Theorem (Bugeaud, Mignotte, Siksek 06):
There are no other perfect powers.

Proof uses modularity approach

combined with many other techniques:
1. Combinatorics of Fn and Ln
2. Algebraic Number Theory factorization in Z[ (1+5) / 2 ]
3. Diophantine height bounds
4. Computational bounds

Partitions
Definition: A partition of n is a nondecreasing sequence of positive integers
1 2 k 1 that sum to n,
n = 1 + 2 + + k .
The partition function p(n) counts the
number of partitions of n.

Example: The partitions of 5 are

5, 4+1, 3+2, 3+1+1, 2+2+1,
2+1+1+1, 1+1+1+1+1,
so p(5) = 7.

Remark: In a partition, the order of parts

doesnt matter in contrast to r4(n) from
earlier.

Ramanujan Congruences
Theorem (Ramanujan 1919): For n 0,
p(5n+4) 0 (mod 5)
p(7n+5) 0 (mod 7)
p(11n+6) 0 (mod 11)

Remark: These are striking multiplicative

properties for a purely additive function!!

Partition generating function

Simple combinatorics

1
2
3
4
p
(
n
)
q

2
q

3
q

5
q
.

n
n 0
n 1 (1 q )
n

Remark: This is an infinite product

hints of a modular form?

Dysons Crank
Conjecture (Dyson 1944): There is a crank
statistic that explains the congruences.
Theorem (Andrews-Garvan 1987): The
crank exists!

Definition: Suppose a partition has r ones.

1. r = 0
crank = largest part,
2. r > 0
crank = u r,
where u = # parts > r.

Example:
crank(3+2+1+1) = 1 2 = 1
crank(4+3+2) = 4

Definition: N(s, m, n) = # partitions of n with

crank s (mod m)
Andrews-Garvan-Dyson:
N(s, 5, 5n+4) = p(5n+4) / 5
N(s, 7, 7n+5) = p(7n+5) / 7
N(s, 11, 11n+6) = p(11n+6) / 11

Modular forms and crank

In fact,

n 0

p(n ) n
N ( s , m, n )
q
m

is always a modular form!

Remark: For the Ramanujan congruences, this
modular form is identically 0.

Onos congruences
Theorem (Ono 2000): For any prime m > 3,
there are A, B so that
p(An + B) 0 (mod m)
Proof idea: p(n) are the coefficients of a
modular form, so arithmetic comes from:
- Galois representations (Serre), combinatorics
(Hecke), prime distributions (Tchebotarev)

Theorem (M. 2005): For any prime m > 3,

there are A, B so that
N(s, m, An + B) 0 (mod m)
Corollary: Onos congruences!
Remark: The Ramanujan congruences are
very special in general the crank is
unequal.

Proof idea: N(s, m, n) and p(n) are related

through the modular form

n 0

p(n ) n
N ( s , m, n )
q
m

But its not very nice

Lots of work before using the
earlier tools!

Modular Forms

The q-series are actually Fourier series:

q = e2iz for z in H

A modular form f(z) of weight k has two

symmetries:
1. f(z + 1) = f(z)
(periodicity)
2. f(-1 / z) = zk f(z) (Mellin transform)

 Composition Group of transformations

a b
f ( z )
:
c d

az b
k

cz

d
f ( z)

cz d

for 2 X 2 matrices w/ determinant 1.

Size of matrix subgroup level.
Alternatively view as (nearly) invariant functions
on 2-dimensional lattices

Fact: Nice modular forms lie in finitedimensional vector spaces.

Note: Nice = technical analytic conditions
Series for p(n) and crank fail badly
No longer finite-dimensional!
Challenge: Transform into something nice

 Interplay between:
Combinatorics of coefficients
Arithmetic modulo m
Analytic transformations

Example: Modulo 5,

1
5n 5
24 n

n
n 11 q
n 1
Left-side coefficients: related to p(n)
- especially if (n,5) = 1

Modularity Approach vs.

Generating Functions (Coefficients)
Recall the modularity approach:
Convert solutions to an impossible E
Specific modular form is unimportant

Coefficients can be very interesting

themselves!!
Sums of squares, Divisor sums, Partitions,

Warning:
Work in math.
And this could
happen to
you!!!