Boiler Introduction

STEAM TO
PROCESS

EXHAUST GAS

STACK

VENT

DEAERATOR

PUMPS
ECONOMIZER

VENT

BOILER
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR

BURNER

WATER
SOURCE

FUEL

CHEMICAL FEED
SOFTENERS

Boiler Introduction
By- Mukesh Jha
Sr.Engineer -Projects,
a2z Powercom Pvt.Ltd.

SOFTENERS

INTRODUCTION
BoilerA Boiler means a pressure vessel in which steam is
generated for use external to itself by application of
heat which is wholly or partly under pressure when
steam is shut off but does not include a pressure vessel
(1) With Capacity less than 25 ltrs (such capacity being
measured from the feed check valve to the main
steam stop valve);
(2) With less than 1 kilogram per centimeter square
design gauge pressure & working gauge pressure;
or
(3) In which water is heated below one hundred degree
centigrade .

Boiler Component
Boiler component means Steam piping , Feed water
piping, Economizer ,Super heater, any mounting or
other fitting and any other external or internal part of
a Boiler which is subjected to pressure exceeding one
kilogram per centimeter square gauge.

STEAM PIPING
Steam Pipe "means any pipe through which steam
passes if(1)The pressure at which the steam passes through
such pipe exceeds 3.5kg/cm^2 above atmospheric
pressure, or
(2)Such pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter
and pressure of steam exceeds 1kg/cm^2.above the
atmospheric pressure.
and includes in either case any connected fitting of
a steam pipe.

At atmospheric pressure water volume increases 1,600 times

STEAM TO
PROCESS

EXHAUST GAS

STACK

VENT

DEAERATOR

PUMPS
ECONOMIZER

VENT

BOILER
BLOW DOWN
SEPARATOR

BURNER

WATER
SOURCE

FUEL

CHEMICAL FEED

Figure: Schematic overview of a boiler room

SOFTENERS

Boiler Systems
Water treatment
system
Feed water
system
Steam System
Blow down
system
Fuel supply
system
Air Supply
system
Flue gas system

Fuels used in Boiler

Types of Boilers
1.Fire Tube Boiler
2.Water Tube Boiler
3.Packaged Boiler
4.Stoker Fired Boiler
5.Pulverized Fuel Boiler
6.Waste Heat Boiler
7.Fluidized Bed (FBC) Boiler

Type of Boilers
1. Fire Tube Boiler

(Light Rail Transit Association)

Relatively small
steam capacities
(12,000 kg/hour)

Low to medium
steam pressures
(18 kg/cm2)

Operates with oil,

gas or solid fuels

Type of Boilers
2. Water Tube Boiler

(Your Dictionary.com)

Used for high steam

demand and pressure
requirements

Capacity range of 4,500

120,000 kg/hour

Combustion efficiency
enhanced by induced
draft provisions

Lower tolerance for

water quality and needs
water treatment plant

Type of Boilers
3. Packaged Boiler
To Chimney

Oil
Burner

(BIB Cochran, 2003)

Comes in complete
package
Features
High heat transfer
Faster evaporation
Good convective
heat transfer
Good combustion
efficiency
High thermal
efficiency
Classified based on
number of passes

Type of Boilers
4. Stoke Fired Boilers
a)

Spreader stokers

Uses both suspension and

grate burning
Coal fed continuously over

burning coal bed

Coal fines burn in

suspension and larger coal

pieces burn on grate
Good flexibility to meet

changing load
requirements
Preferred over other type

of stokers in industrial
application

Type of Boilers
Uses both suspension

4. Stoke Fired Boilers

b) Chain-grate or travelinggrate stoker

and grate burning

Coal fed continuously

over burning coal bed

Coal fines burn in

suspension and larger

coal pieces burn on
grate
Good flexibility to

meet changing load

requirements
Preferred over other
(University of Missouri, 2004)

type of stokers in
industrial application

Type of Boilers
5. Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Coal is pulverized to a fine powder, so that less than 2%
is +300 microns, and 70-75% is below 75 microns.
Coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the
boiler plant through a series of burner nozzles.

Pulverized coal powder blown with

combustion air into boiler through
burner nozzles

Combustion temperature at 1300 -1700

C

Benefits: varying coal quality coal,

quick response to load changes and
high pre-heat air temperatures
Tangential firing

Pulverized Fuel Boiler (Contd..)

Advantages
Its ability to burn all ranks of coal from

anthracitic to lignitic, and it permits

combination firing (i.e., can use coal, oil
and gas in same burner). Because of these
advantages, there is widespread use of
pulverized coal furnaces.

Disadvantages
High power demand for pulverizing
Requires more maintenance, flyash erosion

and pollution complicate unit operation

Type of Boilers
6. Waste Heat Boiler
Used when waste heat
available at medium/high
temp
Auxiliary fuel burners
used if steam demand is
more than the waste heat
can generate

Agriculture and Agri-Food

Canada, 2001

Used in heat recovery

from exhaust gases from
gas turbines and diesel
engines

7.Fluidized Bed (FBC) Boiler

An OverviewFluidized bed combustion has emerged as a
viable alternative and has significant advantages
over conventional firing system and offers
multiple benefits compact boiler design, fuel
flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and
reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as
SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers
include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse
& other agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed
boilers have a wide capacity range.

Mechanism of Fluidised Bed Combustion

When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward
through a finely divided bed of solid particles such as sand
supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low
velocity. As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is
reached when the individual particles are suspended in the air
stream the bed is called fluidized.
With further increase in air velocity, there is
bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid
mixing and formation of dense defined bed
surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the
properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the
appearance of a fluid bubbling fluidized bed.

At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and

particles are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some
amounts of particles have to be recirculated to
maintain a stable system circulating fluidised
bed.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size
and the air velocity.
If sand particles in a fluidized state is heated to the
ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is injected
continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly
and bed attains a uniform temperature. The
fluidized bed combustion (FBC) takes place at
about 840OC to 950OC.

Since this temperature is much below the ash fusion temperature,

melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high
coefficient of heat transfer due to rapid mixing in the fluidized bed
and effective extraction of heat from the bed through in-bed heat
transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained
between minimum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment
velocity. This ensures stable operation of the bed and avoids particle
entrainment in the gas stream.
Combustion process requires the three Ts that is Time, Temperature and
Turbulence. In FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidisation. Improved
mixing generates evenly distributed heat at lower temperature. Residence
time is many times greater than conventional grate
firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower
temperatures.

principle of fluidisation

Fixing, bubbling
and fast
fluidized beds
As the velocity of
a gas flowing
through a bed of
particles
increases, a value
is reaches when
the bed fluidises
and bubbles form
as in a boiling
liquid. At higher
velocities the
bubbles
disappear; and
the solids are
rapidly blown out
of the bed and
must be recycled

Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of sulfur dioxide and

nitrogen oxide emissions in the combustion chamber is achieved
without any additional control equipment. This is one of the major
advantages over conventional boilers.

Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers

There are three basic types of fluidised bed combustion boilers:
1. Atmospheric classic Fluidised Bed Combustion System (AFBC)
2. Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion System (PFBC).
3. Circulating (fast) Fluidised Bed Combustion system(CFBC)

AFBC / Bubbling Bed

In AFBC, coal is crushed to a size of 1 10 mm depending on
the rank of coal, type of fuel feed and fed into the combustion
chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the
fluidization air and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure
and flows through the bed after being preheated by the
exhaust flue gases. The velocity of fluidising air is in the range
of 1.2 to 3.7 m /sec. The rate at which air is blown through the
bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reacted.
Almost all AFBC/ bubbling bed boilers use in-bed
evaporator tubes in the bed of limestone, sand and fuel
for extracting the heat from the bed to maintain the bed
temperature. The bed depth is usually 0.9 m to 1.5 m deep
and the pressure drop averages about 1 inch of water per inch
of bed depth. Very little material leaves the bubbling bed only
about 2 to 4 kg of solids are recycled per ton of fuel burned.

Bubbling Bed Boilers

In the bubbling bed type boiler, a layer of solid
particles (mostly limestone, sand, ash and
calcium sulfate) is contained on a grid near the
bottom of the boiler. This layer is maintained in a
turbulent state as low velocity air is forced into the
bed from a plenum chamber beneath the grid. Fuel
is added to this bed and combustion takes place.
Normally, raw fuel in the bed does not exceed 2%
of the total bed inventory. Velocity of the
combustion air is kept at a minimum, yet high
enough to maintain turbulence in the bed. Velocity
is not high enough to carry significant quantities of
solid particles out of the furnace.

This turbulent mixing of air and fuel results in a residence time

of up to five seconds. The combination of turbulent mixing and
residence time permits bubbling bed boilers to operate at a
furnace temperature below 1650F. At this temperature, the
presence of limestone mixed with fuel in the furnace achieves
greater than 90% sulfur removal. Boiler efficiency is the
percentage of total energy in the fuel that is used to produce
steam.
Combustion
efficiency
of carbon
complete
Incomplete
combustion
resultsisinthe
thepercentage
formation of
combustion
of carbon
in the fuel.
monoxide (CO)
plus unburned
carbon in the solid particles
leaving the furnace. In a typical bubbling bed fluidized boiler,
combustion efficiency can be as high as 92%. This is a
good figure, but is lower than that achieved by
pulverized coal or cyclone-fired boilers. In addition, some
fuels that are very low in volatile matter cannot be
completely burned within the available residence time in
bubbling bed-type boilers.

Features of bubbling bed boiler

Fluidised bed boiler can operate at near atmospheric or
elevated pressure and have these essential features:
Distribution plate through which air is blown for fluidizing.
Immersed steam-raising or water heating tubes which
extract heat directly from the bed.
Tubes above the bed which extract heat from hot
combustion gas before it enters the flue duct.

Bubbling Bed Boiler-1

Bubbling Bed Boiler-2

2. Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion

System (PFBC).
Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of
fluid bed technology that is meant for large-scale coal burning
applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure up
to 16 ata ( 16 kg/cm2).
The off-gas from the fluidized bed combustor drives the gas
turbine. The steam turbine is driven by steam raised in tubes
immersed in the fluidized bed. The condensate from the steam
turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas turbine
exhaust and is then taken as feed water for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined
cycle power generation. By combining the gas and steam
turbines in this way, electricity is generated more efficiently
than
in conventional
The overall
conversion
At elevated
pressure,system.
the potential
reduction
in boilerefficiency
size is
is
higher by 5%
toto
8%.
.
considerable
due
increased
amount of combustion in
pressurized mode and high heat flux through in-bed tubes.

PFBC Boiler for Cogeneration

3. Circulating (fast) Fluidised Bed Combustion

system(CFBC)
The need to improve combustion efficiency (which also
increases overall boiler efficiency and reduces operating costs)
and the desire to burn a much wider range of fuels has
led to the development and application of the CFB
boiler. Through the years, boiler suppliers have been
increasing
the size of utilizes
these high-efficiency
steam
generators.
This
CFBC technology
the fluidized bed
principle
in
which crushed (6 12 mm size) fuel and limestone are injected
into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended in
a stream of upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the total air),
which enters the bottom of the furnace through air distribution
nozzles. The fluidising velocity in circulating beds ranges from
3.7 to 9 m/sec. The balance of combustion air is admitted
above the bottom of the furnace as secondary air.

The combustion takes place at 840-900oC, and the fine particles

(<450 microns) are elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas
velocity of 4-6 m/s. The particles are then collected by the
solids separators and circulated back into the furnace. Solid
recycle is about 50 to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt.
There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. The
circulating bed is designed to move a lot more solids out of the
furnace area and to achieve most of the heat transfer outside
the combustion zone - convection section, water walls, and at
the exit of the riser. Some circulating bed units even have
external heat exchanges.
The particles circulation provides efficient heat transfer to the
furnace walls and longer residence time for carbon and
limestone utilization. Similar to Pulverized Coal (PC) firing, the
controlling parameters in the CFB combustion process are
temperature, residence time and turbulence.

For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boiler

offers better space utilization, greater fuel particle and sorbent
residence time for efficient combustion and SO2 capture, and
easier application of staged combustion techniques for NOx
control than AFBC generators. CFBC boilers are said to achieve
better calcium to sulphur utilization 1.5 to 1 vs. 3.2 to 1 for
the AFBC boilers, although the furnace temperatures are
almost the same.
CFBC boilers are generally claimed to be more economical than
AFBC boilers for industrial application requiring more than 75
100 T/hr of steam
CFBC requires huge mechanical cyclones to capture and
recycle
large
of bed material,
which requires a tall
A
CFBCthe
could
beamount
good choice
if the following
boiler.
conditions
are met.
1. Capacity of boiler is large to medium
2.Sulphur emission and NOx control is important
3.The boiler is required to fire low-grade fuel or fuel with
highly fluctuating fuel quality.

Circulating bed boiler (At a Glance)At high fluidizing gas velocities in which a fast recycling bed of
fine material is superimposed on a bubbling bed of larger
particles. The combustion temperature is controlled by rate of
recycling of fine material. Hot fine material is separated from
the flue gas by a cyclone and is partially cooled in a separate
low velocity fluidized bed heat exchanger, where the heat is
given up to the steam. The cooler fine material is then
recycled to the dense bed.

Advantages of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers

1. High Efficiency
FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95%
irrespective of ash content. FBC boilers can operate with overall
efficiency of 84% (plus or minus 2%).
2. Reduction in Boiler Size
High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area immersed in
the bed result in overall size reduction of the boiler.
3. Fuel Flexibility
FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even
fuels like flotation slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt
efficiently. These can be fed either independently or in combination
with coal into the same furnace.
4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel
FBC boilers would give the rated output even with inferior quality
fuel. The boilers can fire coals with ash content as high as 62% and
having calorific value as low as 2,500 kcal/kg. Even carbon content
of only 1% by weight can sustain the fluidised bed combustion.

5. Ability to Burn Fines

Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC
boiler, which is very difficult to achieve in conventional firing
system.
6. Pollution Control
SO2 formation can be greatly minimised by addition of limestone
or dolomite for high sulphur coals. 3% limestone is required for
every 1% sulphur in the coal feed. Low combustion temperature
eliminates NOx formation.
7. Low Corrosion and Erosion
The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower
combustion temperature, softness of ash and low particle velocity
(of the order of 1 m/sec).
8. Easier Ash Removal No Clinker Formation
Since the temperature of the furnace is in the range of 750 900 o
C in FBC boilers, even coal of low ash fusion temperature can be
burnt without clinker formation. Ash removal is easier as the ash

9. Less Excess Air

Higher CO2 in Flue Gas The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of
14 15% at full load. Hence, the FBC boiler can operate at low excess
air - only 20 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up
High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and shut down.
Full automation of start up and operation using reliable equipment is
possible.
11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations
Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily absorb
fluctuation in fuel feed rates. Response to changing load is comparable
to that of oil fired boilers.
12. No Slagging in the Furnace-No Soot Blowing
In FBC boilers, volatilisation of alkali components in ash does not take
place and the ash is non sticky. This means that there is no slagging or
soot blowing.
13 Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System
Automatic systems for coal and ash handling can be incorporated,
making the plant easy to operate comparable to oil or gas fired

14 Provision of Automatic Ignition System

Control systems using micro-processors and automatic ignition
equipment give excellent control with minimum manual
supervision.
15 High Reliability
The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in
a high degree of reliability and low maintenance costs.
16 Reduced Maintenance
Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is
maintained for long periods.
17 Quick Responses to Changing Demand
A fluidized bed combustor can respond to changing heat
demands more easily than stoker fired systems. This makes it
very suitable for applications such as thermal fluid heaters,
which require rapid responses.
18 High Efficiency of Power Generation
By operating the fluidized bed at elevated pressure, it can be
used to generate hot pressurized gases to power a gas turbine.
This can be combined with a conventional steam turbine
to improve the efficiency of electricity generation and

General Arrangements of FBC Boiler

FBC boilers comprise of following systems:
i) Fuel feeding system
ii) Air Distributor
iii) Bed & In-bed heat transfer surface
iv) Ash handling system
Many of these are common to all types of FBC boilers
1. Fuel Feeding system
For feeding fuel, sorbents like limestone or dolomite, usually
two methods are followed: under bed pneumatic feeding and
over-bed feeding.
Under Bed Pneumatic Feeding
If the fuel is coal, it is crushed to 1-6 mm size and
pneumatically transported from feed hopper to the combustor
through a feed pipe piercing the distributor. Based on the
capacity of the boiler, the number of feed points is increased,
as it is necessary to distribute the fuel into the bed uniformly.

Over-Bed Feeding
The crushed coal, 6-10 mm size is conveyed from coal bunker to a
spreader by a screw conveyor. The spreader distributes the coal over
the surface of the bed uniformly. This type of fuel feeding system
accepts over size fuel also and eliminates transport lines, when
compared to under-bed feeding system.
2. Air Distributor
The purpose of the distributor is to introduce the fluidizing air evenly
through the bed cross section thereby keeping the solid particles in
constant motion, and preventing the formation of defluidization zones
within the bed. The distributor, which forms the furnace floor, is
normally constructed from metal plate with a number of perforations
in a definite geometric pattern. The perforations may be located in
simple nozzles or nozzles with bubble caps, which serve to prevent
solid particles from flowing back into the space below the distributor.
The distributor plate is protected from high temperature of the
furnace by:
i) Refractory Lining
ii) A Static Layer of the Bed Material or

3. Bed & In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface:

a) Bed
The bed material can be sand, ash, crushed refractory or limestone,
with an average size of about 1 mm. Depending on the bed height
these are of two types: shallow bed and deep bed.
At the same fluidizing velocity, the two ends fluidise differently, thus
affecting the heat transfer to an immersed heat transfer surfaces. A
shallow bed offers a lower bed resistance and hence a lower pressure
drop and lower fan power consumption. In the case of deep bed, the
pressure drop is more and this increases the effective gas velocity
and also the fan power.
b) In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface
In a fluidized in-bed heat transfer process, it is necessary to transfer
heat between the bed material and an immersed surface, which
could be that of a tube bundle, or a coil. The heat exchanger
orientation can be horizontal, vertical or inclined. From a pressure
drop point of view, a horizontal bundle in a shallow bed is more
attractive than a vertical bundle in a deep bed. Also, the heat transfer
in the bed depends on number of parameters like (i) bed pressure (ii)
bed temperature (iii) superficial gas velocity (iv) particle size (v) Heat
exchanger design and (vi) gas distributor plate design.

4. Ash Handling System

a) Bottom ash removal
In the FBC boilers, the bottom ash constitutes roughly 30 - 40 % of
the total ash, the rest being the fly ash. The bed ash is removed by
continuous over flow to maintain bed height and also by intermittent
flow from the bottom to remove over size particles, avoid
accumulation and consequent defluidization. While firing high ash
coal such as washery rejects, the bed ash overflow drain quantity is
considerable so special care has to be taken.
b) Fly ash removal
The amount of fly ash to be handled in FBC boiler is relatively very
high, when compared to conventional boilers. This is due to
elutriation of particles at high velocities. Fly ash carried away by the
flue gas is removed in number of stages; firstly in convection
section, then from the bottom of air preheater/economizer and
finally a major portion is removed in dust collectors.
The types of dust collectors used are cyclone, bagfilters,
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) or some combination of all of
these. To increase the combustion efficiency, recycling of fly ash is
practiced in some of the units.

General Features of our Project(3nos)

Installed Capacity : 1 X 15 MW
Proposed Fuels : 85 % of Bagasse / Biomass, 15 % of
Coal, Pet
Coke.
Boiler Type :
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion
(CFBC)
Boiler parameters : Flow 75 TPH
Pressure
87 Kg/cm^2
Temperature - 515 5 oC
Turbine Type : Two Nos. of uncontrolled extraction type
and
one no. of controlled extraction cum
condensing type
Turbine parameters : Pressure 84 Kg/cm^2
Temperature - 510 5 oC
Plant load Factor : 0.85
No. of Days of power: 335
plant operation in a year

General Features of our Project(1nos)

Installed Capacity : 1 X 15 MW
Proposed Fuels : 85 % of Bagasse / Biomass, 15 % of
Coal, Pet
Coke.
Boiler Type :
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion
(CFBC)
Boiler parameters : Flow 100 TPH
Pressure
87 Kg/cm^2
Temperature - 515 5 oC
Turbine Type : Two Nos. of uncontrolled extraction type
and
one no. of controlled extraction cum
condensing type
Turbine parameters : Pressure 84 Kg/cm^2
Temperature - 510 5 oC
Plant load Factor : 0.85
No. of Days of power: 335
plant operation in a year

Future of CFBC Boiler

600 MWe
OTU CFB.
Using the
BENSON
Vertical
technolo
gy,
Foster
Wheeler
has
developed
a design
for a 600
MWe
supercritic
al CFB
boiler

FOSTER WHEELER AWARDED CONTRACT FOR

WORLDS LARGEST 100% BIOMASS BOILER
ZUG, SWITZERLAND, April 7, 2010 - Foster Wheeler AG (Nasdaq:
FWLT) announced today that its Global Power Group has been
awarded a contract by GDF SUEZ, one of the leading energy
providers in the world, for the design, supply and erection of a
190 MWe (gross megawatt electric) 100% biomass-fired
circulating fluidized-bed (CFB) boiler island for the Polaniec
Power Station in Poland.
Foster Wheeler has received a full notice to proceed on this
contract which will be executed jointly by its subsidiaries in
Finland and Poland. The terms of the agreement were not
disclosed and the contract value will be included in the
companys bookings for the first quarter of 2010. Construction
completion and start of operation of the new steam generator is
scheduled for fourth-quarter 2012.
Foster Wheeler will design and supply the steam generator and
auxiliary equipment, including biomass yard, and will carry out
the civil works, erection and commissioning of the boiler island.
Once complete, this will be the worlds largest biomass boiler

Performance of a boiler
1. Boiler
2. Boiler blow down
3. Boiler feed water treatment

Performance of a Boiler
1. Boiler performance
Causes of poor boiler performance
-

Poor combustion
Heat transfer surface fouling
Poor operation and maintenance
Deteriorating fuel and water quality

Heat balance: identify heat losses

Boiler efficiency: determine
deviation from best efficiency

Performance of a Boiler
Heat Balance
An energy flow diagram describes geographically
how energy is transformed from fuel into useful
energy, heat and losses
Stochiometric
Excess Air
Un burnt

Stack Gas

FUEL INPUT

STEAM
OUTPUT

Convection &
Radiation

Blow
Down

Ash and Un-burnt parts

of Fuel in Ash

Performance of a Boiler
Heat Balance
Balancing total energy entering a boiler against the
energy that leaves the boiler in different forms
%
%

100.0 %
Fuel

BOILER

%
2%
%

Heat loss due to dry flue gas

Heat loss due to steam in fuel gas
Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
Heat loss due to moisture in air
Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss

Heat in Steam

Performance of a Boiler
Heat Balance
Goal: improve energy efficiency by reducing avoidable losses

Avoidable losses include:

- Stack gas losses (excess air, stack gas

temperature)
- Losses by unburnt fuel
- Blow down losses
- Condensate losses
- Convection and radiation

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency: % of (heat) energy input that is
effectively useful in the generated steam

BOILER EFFICENCY
CALCULATION

DIRECT METHOD:
The energy gain of the
working fluid (water and steam)
is compared with the energy
content of the boiler fuel.

2) INDIRECT METHOD:
The efficiency is the
different between losses
and energy input

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method
Boiler efficiency () =

Heat Input x 100

Q x (hg hf) x 100
=
Heat Output
Q x GCV

hg -the enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam

hf -the enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water
Parameters to be monitored:
- Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr
- Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr
- The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature
(oC), if any
- The temperature of feed water (oC)
- Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of
fuel

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method
Advantages

Quick evaluation
Few parameters for computation
Few monitoring instruments
Easy to compare evaporation ratios with
benchmark figures

Disadvantages

No explanation of low efficiency

Various losses not calculated

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method
Efficiency of boiler () = 100 (i+ii+iii+iv+v+vi+vii)
Principle losses:

i) Dry flue gas

ii) Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
iii) Evaporation of moisture in fuel
iv) Moisture present in combustion air
v) Unburnt fuel in fly ash
vi) Unburnt fuel in bottom ash
vii) Radiation and other unaccounted losses

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method
Required calculation data
Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture
content, ash content)
% oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
Fuel gas temperature in C (Tf)
Ambient temperature in C (Ta) and humidity of air in
kg/kg of dry air
GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
% combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method
Advantages

Complete mass and energy balance for each

individual stream
Makes it easier to identify options to improve
boiler efficiency

Disadvantages

Time consuming
Requires lab facilities for analysis

Performance of a Boiler
2. Boiler Blow Down

Controls total dissolved solids (TDS) in the

water that is boiled

Blows off water and replaces it with feed water

Conductivity measured as indication of TDS

levels

Calculation of quantity blow down required:

Blow down (%) =

Feed water TDS x % Make up water

Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler water

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Blow Down
Two types of blow down
Intermittent
Manually operated valve reduces TDS
Large short-term increases in feed water
Substantial heat loss

Continuous
Ensures constant TDS and steam purity
Heat lost can be recovered
Common in high-pressure boilers

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Blow Down
Benefits
Lower pretreatment costs
Less make-up water consumption
Reduced maintenance downtime
Increased boiler life
Lower consumption of treatment
chemicals

Performance of a Boiler
3. Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Quality of steam depend on water
treatment to control
Steam purity
Deposits
Corrosion

Efficient heat transfer only if boiler

water is free from deposit-forming
solids

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Deposit control
To avoid efficiency losses and reduced
heat transfer
Hardness salts of calcium and
magnesium
Alkaline hardness: removed by boiling
Non-alkaline: difficult to remove

Silica forms hard silica scales

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
Internal water treatment

Chemicals added to boiler to prevent scale

Different chemicals for different water types

Conditions:
Feed water is low in hardness salts
Low pressure, high TDS content is tolerated
Small water quantities treated

Internal treatment alone not recommended

Performance of a Boiler
Boiler Feed Water Treatment
External water treatment:

Removal of suspended/dissolved solids and

dissolved gases

Pre-treatment: sedimentation and settling

First treatment stage: removal of salts

Processes
a) Ion exchange
b) Demineralization
c) De-aeration
d) Reverse osmoses

Performance of a Boiler
External Water Treatment
a) Ion-exchange process (softener plant)
Water passes through bed of natural zeolite of
synthetic resin to remove hardness
Base exchange: calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg)
replaced with sodium (Na) ions
Does not reduce TDS, blow down quantity and
alkalinity

b) Demineralization
Complete removal of salts
Cations in raw water replaced with hydrogen ions

Performance of a Boiler
External Water Treatment
c) De-aeration
Dissolved corrosive gases (O2, CO2)
expelled by preheating the feed water
Two types:
Mechanical de-aeration: used prior to addition
of chemical oxygen scavangers
Chemical de-aeration: removes trace oxygen

Performance of a Boiler
External Water Treatment
Mechanical
de-aeration

Vent
Spray
Nozzles

Boiler Feed
Water

Stea
m

Scrubber
Section
(Trays)

O2 and CO2 removed by

heating feed water
Economical treatment
process
Vacuum type can reduce
O2 to 0.02 mg/l

Storage
Section
De-aerated
Boiler Feed
Water

( National Productivity Council)

Pressure type can

reduce O2 to 0.005 mg/l

Performance of a Boiler
External Water Treatment
Chemical de-aeration
Removal of trace oxygen with scavenger
Sodium sulphite:
Reacts with oxygen: sodium sulphate
Increases TDS: increased blow down
Hydrazine
Reacts with oxygen: nitrogen + water
Does not increase TDS: used in high pressure
boilers

Performance of a Boiler
External Water Treatment
d) Reverse osmosis
Osmosis
Solutions of differing concentrations
Separated by a semi-permeable membrane
Water moves to the higher concentration

Reversed osmosis
Higher concentrated liquid pressurized
Water moves in reversed direction

Performance of a Boiler
External water treatment
d) Reverse osmosis
Pressure

Fresh Water

Feed Water
More
Concentrated
Solution
Concentrate
Flow

Water Flow

Semi Permeable Membrane

Introduction
Type of boilers
Performance of a boiler
Energy efficiency opportunities

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Stack temperature control

Feed water preheating using economizers
Combustion air pre-heating
Incomplete combustion minimization
Excess air control
Avoid radiation and convection heat loss
Automatic blow down control
Reduction of scaling and soot losses
Reduction of boiler steam pressure
Variable speed control
Controlling boiler loading
Proper boiler scheduling
Boiler replacement

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Stack Temperature Control
Keep as low as possible
If >200C then recover waste heat

2. Feed Water Preheating

Economizers
Potential to recover heat from 200 300 oC flue
gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler

3. Combustion Air Preheating

If combustion air raised by 20C = 1% improve
thermal efficiency

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

4. Minimize Incomplete Combustion
Symptoms:
Smoke, high CO levels in exit flue gas

Causes:
Air shortage, fuel surplus, poor fuel distribution
Poor mixing of fuel and air

Oil-fired boiler:
Improper viscosity, worn tops, cabonization on
dips, deterioration of diffusers or spinner plates

Coal-fired boiler: non-uniform coal size

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

5. Excess Air Control
Excess air required for complete combustion
Optimum excess air levels varies
1% excess air reduction = 0.6% efficiency rise
Portable or continuous oxygen analyzers
Fuel

Kg air req./kg fuel

%CO2 in flue gas in practice

Solid Fuels
Bagasse
Coal (bituminous)
Lignite
Paddy Husk
Wood

3.3
10.7
8.5
4.5
5.7

10-12
10-13
9 -13
14-15
11.13

Liquid Fuels
Furnace Oil
LSHS

13.8
14.1

9-14
9-14

84

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

6. Radiation and Convection Heat
Loss Minimization

Fixed heat loss from boiler shell, regardless of

boiler output

Repairing insulation can reduce loss

7. Automatic Blow Down Control

Sense and respond to boiler water conductivity

and pH

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

8. Scaling and Soot Loss Reduction

Every 22oC increase in stack temperature = 1%

efficiency loss

3 mm of soot = 2.5% fuel increase

9. Reduced Boiler Steam Pressure

Lower steam pressure

= lower saturated steam temperature
= lower flue gas temperature

Steam generation pressure dictated by process

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

10. Variable Speed Control for Fans,
Blowers and Pumps

Suited for fans, blowers, pumps

Should be considered if boiler loads are
variable

11. Control Boiler Loading

Maximum boiler efficiency: 65-85% of rated load

Significant efficiency loss: < 25% of rated load

Energy Efficiency Opportunities

12. Proper Boiler Scheduling

Optimum efficiency: 65-85% of full load

Few boilers at high loads is more efficient than

large number at low loads

13. Boiler Replacement

Financially attractive if existing boiler is
Old and inefficient
Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
Over or under-sized for present requirements
Not designed for ideal loading conditions

Boilers
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION