Birds & Conservation

A Global & Local

Perspective

Major Conservation Issues

Humans
Habitat
Toxic compounds
Exotic species
Island Effect
Nest Parasites

General Effects of Humans:

we take up space & demand resources

Human population & associated effects
Huge size (~ 6 billion)
Future increases in population - some
models suggest peaks @ between 12-20
billion

Development (all available habitat)

Housing
Industry
Agricultural

Human Presence

Other Associated Human

Effects
Excessive Hunting
when going beyond sustainable levels
turn of century feather collectors
poaching of endangered species

Examples:
Passenger Pigeon
Great Auk
Eskimo Curlew & other shorebirds

Once the most abundant

bird in North America, the
Passenger Pigeon is now
extinct. Overhunting for
markets is though to be
one contributing factor.

Formerly a common spring migrant in

in eastern SD; now probably extinct

Eskimo Curlew
Texas 1962

Upcoming Schedule
Final Field Trip Sat., May 1
Newton Hills State Park
0730-1400

Final Exam
Thursday, May 6
1230 to 1430
Will cover material since second exam
(Social Systems through Conservation)

Other Associated Human

Effects
Road Kills
Cats
Collisions
buildings, windows, communications towers

Human activities directly kill an

estimated 1 billion birds each year
in the U.S.

Avian Collision Study (Erickson et

al.2005)
Annual estimates of U.S. Mortality

Vehicles (80 million)

Buildings/Windows (100 million-1 billion)
Powerlines (130 million)
Communication Towers (4-5 million)
Wind Turbines (20-40 thousand)
For comparison: house cats = about 100 million
annually in N. America
Total anthropogenic mortality = > 1 billion

Habitat Destruction
Loss
destroyed altogether
removal and replacement with humanaltered habitat

Fragmentation
partial destruction as well as separation
of once-connected areas into isolated
fragments
leads to lower total area & possible
separation of populations in fragments

Habitat Destruction
Degradation
lower quality due to a variety of factors
such as exotic species, increased edge,
toxins, etc.
cheatgrass or other weeds
agricultural runoff in a stream

Many habitats are threatened

Tropical Rainforests
Temperate Forests
Wetlands/Riparian Areas
Grasslands

With loss of habitat, there is less

area to sustain populations

New World Rainforest

p. 642

Gray: extant forest

Black: destroyed

p. 642

Gray: extant forest

Black: destroyed

SE Asian
Rainforest

Examples
Golden-cheeked Warbler

breeds central Texas

winters S Mexico
housing developments, recreation, etc.
cowbirds

Riparian birds in South Dakota

many woodland habitats now gone due to dams
and conversion to agriculture
limited habitat area for populations

Note dramatic decreases in forest and grassland habitats

Migratory Birds
Need suitable habitat for all phases
of life cycle:
breeding, wintering, migration

Habitats migrants use often differs

among seasons
Conservation plans must be complex
to safeguard all important habitats

Habitat Conservation
Efforts

Preserves:

National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, National

Forests & Grasslands, state & local parks, private

Conservation easements:
private land set aside, CRP

Endangered Species Act:

mandates protection for species threatened by
human activities

Need ecosystem-based approaches

Environmental toxins
Pesticides
DDT
PCBs

Fertilizers
Fossil Fuels
Household Chemicals

Pesticides
Widespread use:
household & lawns
agricultural
pest control

Many effects
reduce prey populations
non-target mortalities
For example, Birds of Prey

bio-accumulation and bio-magnification

Example of Pesticide
Effects: DDT
DDT: 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis-(pchlorophenyl) ethane
widespread use mid-1900s
population declines noticed in many birds,
especially predators
Osprey, Bald Eagle, Peregrine Falcon
Peregrine almost extinct in eastern US

DDT banned in US in 1972

subsequent rebound of all raptor
species affected

Bald Eagles before & after DDT ban:

Reproduction & amounts of DDE

p. 565

Local Toxin Example: Selenium

& colonial waterbirds

Selenium (Se):
trace mineral
important in small amounts
key component of enzymes

Selenium & colonial

waterbirds
The problem:
high concentrations of Se found in some
soil types: (e.g., marine shale)
Se leaches from soil in high amounts
agricultural run-off leads to high [ ] in
bodies of water
Se will bioaccumulate (increasing levels
as you move up food chain)

Selenium & colonial

waterbirds
Effects on birds:
deformities
reduced reproductive success

Rookery @ Stratford Slough (Brown

Co., SD)
~ 1000 birds destroyed due to selenium

Exotic Species

Exotic Species
Introduced
Non-native
Exotic
any species living outside of its natural
range
Sources:

human colonists (acclimatization societies)

agriculture
accidental transport
biological control
just for fun

Examples of Exotic Species

southern US: Fire Ants
Guam: Brown Tree Snake
US: European Starling
House Sparrow
Rock Pigeon
Ring-necked Pheasants
Hawaii: > 50 introduced bird species

Why are exotics a problem?

Freedom from usual population
limitation
no natural predators
no usual diseases

Competition with or predation of

native species:
native species may have not evolved
defenses or necessary behaviors to deal
with exotics

Effects
of Fire
Ants:
predation
competition

Brown Tree Snake in Guam

Bird

Exotic Birds
European Starling:
introduced to Central Park in NYC ~ 1890
now most common bird in US
competes for food & nest cavities

House Sparrow & Rock Pigeon

more confined to human areas
still compete w/ natives
House Sparrow vs. Purple Martin

More Exotic Birds

Ring-necked Pheasant & other game
birds (Chukar, Gray Partridge, etc.)
favored for hunting
may compete w/ native grouse (???)

Birds and Islands

Island Biogeography
The small island effect
Small islands support small
populations
Island populations often not exposed
to full range of ecological factors
predators
pathogens

Island Biogeography
Evolve unique adaptations, which
often lead to speciation
flightlessness
ground-nesting

More sensitive to changes in

environment
Hawaii
Guam
fragmented habitats

Hawaii
Isolated volcanic islands
populated by founder species that
colonized
adaptive radiation
many unique, locally adapted species
flightless Ibis & honeycreepers

few predators

Hawaii Human effects

over last 2 millenia:
introduced pigs & other ungulates
over-grazing/browsing

introduced rats (nocturnal)

predators of many unsuspecting birds

introduced mongoose (diurnal)

preys on many birds (not rats!)

introduced mosquitoes
avian malaria w/ introduced birds
spread by mosquitoes

Hawaii
~ 1/2 of original species remain
many remaining are threatened by
habitat loss, diseases, & vagaries of
small population size

Guam
Brown Tree Snake
elimination of all wild populations of
Guams endemic birds:
rail, kingfisher, songbirds, etc.

Island Biogeography &

Mainland Ecosystems
Naturally occurring islands of habitat:
Black Hills
Sky Islands of desert southwest

Human-caused fragmentation:

once extensive areas now only patches

forest
grassland
etc.

Cowbirds and Conservation

Brood parasitism has negative impacts
on host reproductive success
Cowbirds feed in open areas but
parasitize many forest-dwelling
songbirds
Human activities have allowed cowbirds
to expand their range
Forest fragmentation more open areas
Cattle ranching associate with
bison/cattle

Cowbirds and Conservation

Brown-headed Cowbirds have
parasitized over 220 species
Of these < 25 eject cowbird eggs, 37
desert nest to renest, only a few build
a new floor over clutch. Most are
susceptible.
Parasitism probably not responsible for
continent-wide population declines, but
do impact some endangered species.
Least Bells Vireo, Kirtlands Warbler, Blackcapped Vireo, SW Willow Flycatcher)

Cowbirds and Conservation

Control Issues:
Some view killing cowbirds as inhumane
Cowbird removal is only a short-term
solution to the problem
Cowbird removal is expensive
Bells Vireo: over $665K/year (225 traps/yr,
each trap gets about 3,000 cowbirds/yr)
Kirtlands Warbler: $90K/yr
Black-capped Vireo: $45K/yr

Removal doesnt increase population size

for all species

Cowbird Removal: Successes

Golden-cheeked Warbler: rate of
parasitized nests down from 90% in
1987 to 22% in 1996.
Black-capped Vireo: rate of
parasitized nests down from 90% in
1987 to <10% in 2000-2002; nest
success increased from 3% to >40%.
SW Willow Flycatcher: rate of
parasitized nests down from 63% in
1989-1991 to 15% in 2003, nest
success increased from 20 to 61%.

Cowbird Removal: Mixed Results

Least Bells Vireo: populations
increased following cowbird control
and efforts to improve habitat
Kirtlands Warbler: cowbird control
and habitat restoration increased
population from 200 breeding pairs in
1972 to 1800 breeding pairs in 2007.
SW Willow Flycatcher: After 12
years of cowbird control CA pop. still
decreased. Suggests that habitat, not
cowbirds, is limiting factor.

Cowbirds and Conservation

What to do about it?
Habitat issues are primary concerns
Increase nesting habitat for songbirds
Decrease habitat fragmentation that
favors cowbirds

Cowbird Control = not a long-term

solution
May help very small populations increase
to reestablish a stable breeding
population, but dont promote long-term
recovery