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EE535 - Solar
EE535 - Solar
EE535 Oct
S Daniels
Solar Radiation
Energy from the sun in the form of ultra-violet, visible and infra-red electromagnetic
radiation is known as solar radiation
Ultraviolet
Visible
Near-Infrared
Infrared
0.20 - 0.39
0.39 - 0.78
0.78 - 4.00
4.00 - 100.00
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Orientation
z
Horizon
Equator
is the declination of the sun
is the hour angle of the sun
is the angle between the incident
solar flux and the normal to the surface
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Absorption
Transmission
Scattering
Reflection
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_radiation
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Solar Quantities
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Direct Solar
Radiation
Diffuse Solar
Radiation
Global Solar
Radiation
Infra-red Radiation
Net Radiation
balance
Turbidity
A0 = E (1-a0)
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Solar Corrections
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http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/shining/page12_fig.html
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Clouds
Cloudfree (direct beam insolation) and cloudy periods
(prevailing diffuse radiation) average to a mean irradiance
For the assessment of solar power plant sites, short interval
recordings of sunshine, direct and diffuse radiation are
required
Clouds can be classified by their optical depth
2 > dci (1) > 0.2 > dci (2) > 0.02 > dci (3) > 0
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European Irradiation
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Typical Figures
The intensity of the sunlight that reaches the earth varies with time of the day
and year, location, and the weather conditions. The total energy on a daily or
annual basis is called irradiation and indicates the strength of the sunshine.
Irradiation is expressed in Wh/m per day or for instance kWh/m per day.
To simplify calculations with irradiation data solar energy is expressed in
equivalents of hour's bright sun light. Bright sun light corresponds with a
power of about 1,000 W/m so one hour of bright sunlight corresponds with an
amount of energy of 1 kWh/m.
This is approximately the solar energy when the sun shines on a cloudless day
in the summer on a surface of one square meter perpendicular to the sun.
The optimum orientation and inclination angle will vary from site to site
On-site measurements essential
Ideally you want the cell oriented at 90 to the sun at all times
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Solar Panels
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Sun Height
The optimal solar device tilt
Can be estimated from:
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Ref: http://www.pvresources.com/en/location.php
h = hour angle
L = Latitude
Solar Azimuth
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Declination Angle
d
The declination angle, denoted by d, varies seasonally due to the tilt of the Earth
on its axis of rotation and the rotation of the Earth around
the sun. If the Earth were not tilted on its axis of rotation, the declination would
always be 0.
However, the Earth is tilted by 23.45 and the declination angle varies plus or
minus this amount.
Only at the spring and autumn equinoxes is the declination angle equal to 0.
EE535 Oct
S Daniels
The sun moves across the sky from east to west. Solar panels are most
effective when they are positioned facing the sun at a perpendicular angle at
noon.
Solar panels are usually placed on a roof or a frame and have a fixed position
and cannot follow the movement of the sun along the sky. Therefore they will
not face the sun with an optimal (90 degrees) angle all day. The angle between
the horizontal plane and the solar panel is called the tilt angle.
Due to motion of the earth round the sun there are also seasonal variations. In
the winter the sun will not reach the same angle as in summer. Ideally, in the
summer solar panels should be placed somewhat more horizontal, to benefit
most from the sun high in the sky. However these panels will then not be
placed optimally for the winter sun.
To achieve the best year round performance solar panels should be installed at
a fixed angle, which lies somewhere between the optimum angle for summer
and for winter. For each latitude there is an optimum tilt angle. Only near to
the equator the solar panels should be placed horizontally.
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The proper tilt and azimuth angle choice is by far more important for photovoltaic systems design than solar thermal
system design.
Manual or automatic tilt angle adjustment can increase the total light-electricity conversion up to 30 % and more in locations with high
values of solar radiation.
Incidence angle should be as close to 90 as possible.
Shaded locations, including partially shaded, are not suitable for photovoltaic module fixation.
Modules should be south oriented.
The following general recommendations should be considered, if you design a photovoltaic system:
Yearly average maximum output power - the photovoltaic modules tilt angle should equal local latitude.
Maximum output power in winter - the photovoltaic modules tilt angle should equal local latitude + 15 (max +20).
Such a tilt angle is a good solution in areas, where the winter load is greater than the summer load. The electricity
consumption for lighting is greater during winter than summer.
Manual photovoltaic module tilt angle adjustment - in small systems modules should be fixed in a way, which allows
manual adjustment of the module tilt angle. In March the tilt angle should be adjusted to equal latitude, in May the tilt
angle equals latitude minus 10 degrees, in September the tilt angle equals latitude and in December the tilt angle equals
latitude plus 10 degrees. With such an adjustment the maximal efficiency could be obtained throughout the year.
Accurate and maximum energy output of larger systems should be based on exact calculations, because energy output is
influenced by different factors, such as local climatic conditions (solar radiation availability in different seasons, local
cloudiness or fogginess in winter, temperature and so on). You will need a long-term solar radiation data for the chosen
location.
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Watt Peak
A solar cell produces electricity when it is exposed to light. Depending
on the intensity of the light (the irradiance in W/m) a solar cell
produces more or less electricity: bright sunlight is preferable to shade
and shade is better than electric light. To compare solar cells and
panels it is necessary to know the so-called nominal power of such a
cell or panel. The rated power, expressed in Watt peak or Wp, is a
measure of how much energy such a solar panel can produce under
optimal conditions.
To determine and compare the nominal power of solar panels, the
output is measured under standard test conditions (STC). These
conditions are:
- An irradiance of 1,000 W/m
- Solar reference spectrum AM 1.5 (this defines the type and colour of
the light)
- Cell temperature of 25 C (Importantly, the efficiency of a solar panel
drops when the cell temperature rises).
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Site Analysis
The choice of a proper location is the first and the very essential step
in solar system design procedure.
It is critical that the modules are exposed to sunlight without
shadowing at least from 9 am to 3 pm; therefore, the properties and
values of solar insolation should be studied. The modules have to be
fixed with proper tilt angle allowing the system efficient operation.
When planning a solar array installation one of the first things you'll
need to determine is the design month, which is the month with the
lowest insolation. - this assumes power consumption is more or less
constant throughout the year. If not the case then the design month
becomes the month with the highest average daily power use. In
systems tied to an electric grid this isn't as important because your
utility can pick up the slack but when dealing with off the grid systems
it becomes imperative in order to keep the battery charged
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Global Averages
The average annual global radiation impinging on
a horizontal surface which amounts to approx.
1000 kWh/m2 in Central Europe, Central Asia, and
Canada reach approx.
1700 kWh/m2 in the Mediterannian.
2200 kWh/m2 in most equatorial regions in African,
Oriental, and Australian desert areas.
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Calculation
From European Irradiation Data (slide 10), Ireland
has on average 1000kWhrs / m2 / year of sunlight
= 2.7 kWhrs / m2 / day
= ~ 108 watts / m2
Assume average (total) energy consumption in
Ireland is 120kWh / day / person
( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_b
y_energy_consumption_per_capita)
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Calculation
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