Chapter 3

MULTIPLEXING OF
TELEPHONE CHANNELS
Prof. Mohd Ahmed
Head,
Deptt of Electronics and Communication,
OIST, Bpl

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MULTIPLEXING OF TELEPHONE CHANNELS

Popular Multiplexing Techniques:
Time Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
Wavelength Division Multiplexing

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FDM
Done in Frequency Domain
Can be applied when the bandwidth of a link

(in hertz) is greater than the combined

bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted

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FDM MX PROCESS

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FDM DMX PROCESS

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Conceptual Questions
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz

bandwidth, are to be multiplexed together.

What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if
there is a need for a guard band of 10kHz
between the channels to prevent
interference?

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TDM
Done in time Domain
Signals from different sources sent over same

link but different time instances

Analog Signals are converted into PCM codes
and then Time Division multiplexed.

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Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input

connection is divided into units, where each input

occupies one input time slot.
A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of
data.
Each input unit becomes one output unit and
occupies one output time slot.
The duration of an output time slot is n times
shorter than the duration of an input time slot.
In other words, a unit in the output connection
has a shorter duration; it travels faster
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STDM PROCESS

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Conceptual Questions
The data rate for 3 input connection to be

Time division multiplexed is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at

a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is
the duration of
(a) each input slot,
(b) each output slot,
and (c) each frame?

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Conceptual Questions
Figure shows synchronous TDM with a data

stream for each input and one data stream for

the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a)
the input bit duration, (b) the output bit
duration,(c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.

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Interleaving
TDM can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches,

one on the multiplexing side and the other on the

demultiplexing side.
The switches are synchronized and rotate at the
same speed, but in opposite directions. On the
multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a
connection, that connection has the opportunity to
send a unit onto the path. This process is called
interleaving.
On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path
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Conceptual Questions
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If

each channel sends 100 bytes/s and we

multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame
traveling on the link, the size of the frame, the
duration of a frame, the frame rate, and the
bit rate for the link
A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps
channels using a time slot of 2 bits. Show the
output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the
frame rate? What is the frame duration? What
is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?
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Empty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could

be. If a source does not have data to send, the

corresponding slot in the output frame is
empty.

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Data Rate Management

If data rates are not the same, three

strategies, or a combination of them, can be

used.
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot allocation
Pulse stuffing.

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Multilevel Multiplexing Multilevel

multiplexing is a technique used when

the data rate of an input line is a multiple of
others

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Multilevel Multiplexing
Here we have two inputs of 20 kbps and three

inputs of 40 kbps. The first two input lines can

be multiplexed together to provide a data rate
equal to the last three. A second level of
multiplexing can create an output of 160 kbps

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Multiple-Slot Allocation
Sometimes it is more efficient to allot

more than one slot in a frame to a single

input line. For example, we might have an
input line that has a data rate that is a
multiple of another input.

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Bit Stuffing
Sometimes the bit rates of sources are

not multiple integers of each other.

One solution is to make the highest input data
rate the dominant data rate and then add
dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates.
This will increase their rates.
This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit
padding, or bit stuffing

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Frame Synchronizing
If the. multiplexer and the demultiplexer are

not synchronized, a bit belonging to one

channel may be received by the wrong channel.
one or more synchronization bits are usually
added to the beginning of each frame.
These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern,
frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to
synchronize with the incoming stream so that it
can separate the time slots accurately.

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We have four sources, each creating 250

characters per second. If the interleaved unit

is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added
to each frame, find (a) the data rate of each
source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the
duration of each frame, (e) the number of bits
in each frame, and (f) the data rate of the link

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The data rate of each source is 250 x 8 = 2000 bps = 2

kbps.
b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;
therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or4
ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source,
which means the link needs to send 250 frames per
second to keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms..
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is 4 x 8
+ 1 =33 bits.
f. The link sends 250 frames per second, and each
frame contains 33 bits. This means that the data rate
of the link is 250 x 33, or 8250 bps.
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T1 and the T Carrier

System
Hierarchy of TDM
USA/Canada/Japan use one system
ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
US system based on DS-1 format

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Range of the voice

The human voice contains most of the

understandable energy between 300 and

3300 Hz
A sampling rate of 6600 samples per second
should be sufficient to encode human voice.
To guarantee a good reproduction of the voice
a sampling rate of 8000 samples was chosen
for the T carrier system

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DS1 and T1 carrier

Multiplexes 24 channels
Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one

framing bit
193 bits per frame
Transmission rate established at 1.544
Megabits per second
Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
Signaling bits form stream for each channel

containing control and routing info

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T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

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Digital Carrier Systems

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DS and T line rates

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AMI Bipolar Format

T carrier format places voltage on a twisted

pair copper wire to encode the bit stream

A zero is represented by zero volts on the line
A one is represented by alternating +3v and
-3v
This alternating voltage is known as Alternate
Mark Inversion. Or Bipolar Format
0 1 0 11000111 would be represented by the
voltages 0v +3v 0v -3v +3v 0v 0v 0v -3v +3v
-3v
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DS1 Frame Format

Voice lines are digitized using PCM
Each digitized stream is a 64 kbit/s signal

called a Digital Signal level 0 because it has

zero multiplexing at this point.
24 digital signals are multiplexed using TDM
into one channel called digital signal level 1 or
DS1
After 24 channels are sampled quantized and
encoded the resultant bit stream is called a
frame
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DS1 Frame Format

PAM sample is 8 bits
A frame is 1 sample from 24 channels + 1 bit
Frames are produces at 8000 per second
A frame has a time duration of 125 micro

seconds. 1 second / 8000 samples = .000125

the bit duration is 648 nanoseconds 125/193
= 648 nano seconds

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Channel Banks and Framing types

The type of Channel Bank is important since it defines the

type of formatting that is required

There are five kinds of Channel Banks that are used in the
System: D1, D2, D3, D4, and DCT
D1 banks (later called D1A) were first installed in 1962 and
their success led to modifications of D1B and D1C
The original D1A,B, and C banks used 7 bits for each voice
sample and one bit in each code word for carrying the
signalling (off hook, ring, etc)
It was realized that providing signaling information in every
code word was wasteful since 8,000 bits per second was not
required to provide the signaling information for a channel;
the signalling information simply did not change that quickly
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The D1 type channel bank (D1A,B,C) placed alternate 1's

and 0's in the 193rd bit position.

It was assumed that random data would not contain this
pattern, in bits spaced exactly 193 bits apart, for any
significant length of time.
Certain standard analog tones, such as the 1000 Hz test
tone, applied to one or more voice channels and digitized
by Channel Bank, created an alternating one and zero
pattern every 193 bits in one or more voice channels.
It was possible for the terminal to lock up on the incorrect
pattern. This condition, affecting all 24 channels, could last
until the test tone was removed. The 1000 Hz tone has
been changed to a 1004 Hz test tone
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D2 Bank
As a result of these conditions, another

modification to the D1 series (D1D) and the new

D2 channel bank were developed.
The D2 bank uses all eight bits of every time slot
to encode the analog signal except for selected
frames.
Supervisory and signalling information is sent by
using the least significant bit from the code word
in each channel every sixth frame.
The D2 bank increased the packing density to 96
channels in the same space as the 72 channels
for a D1 bank
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The new format provided for eight bit coding

most of the time (5/6 frames) and seven bits

only in one frame out of six. This is known as
7 5/6 coding with "robbed bit" signaling

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D4 Superframe
The Superframe Format is most often referred to as

the D4 frame format even though it began with D2.

This sequence defines a "superframe" consisting of
two interleaved patterns.
The terminal framing pattern ("F" bit) is a repeating
ones and zeros in odd numbered frames and the
superframe alignment pattern ("S" bit) is "001110"
in the even numbered frames. This results in a 12bit superframe pattern of
Odd Six Bits : 101010
Even Six Bits : 001110
Combined Twelve Bits :100011011100
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Basic D1 Frame
Initial T1 used 7 bit magnitude only PCM code
D1 channel bank was added with eighth bit as

signalling bit to perform interoffice signalling

Introduced 8 kbps signalling rate overhead.

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Superframe Format
Framing pattern for voice and data
Repeating pattern of 12 bits 1000 1101 1100
Allows bits to be robbed from the 6th and

12th frame of the superframe

The 8th bit from each sample from frame 6
and 12 is used to provide signaling.
MSB in 6th and LSB in 12th
1-6 A highway, 7-12 B highway

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Extended Superframe
Extended superframe(ESF) is aT1framing

standard, sometimes called D5 framing

because it was first used in the D5 channel
bank
It is preferred to its predecessor,super
frame, because it includes acyclic
redundancy check(CRC) and 4000
bit/schannel capacityfor adata
linkchannel(used to passout-of-band data
between equipment.)
It requires less frequentsynchronizationthan
the earliersuperframeorD-4format, and
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provides on-line,
real-time testing ofcircuit

Extended Superframe
In ESF, a superframe is 24frames long, and the

193rdbitof each superframe is used in the

following manner:
Frames 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 are used to
send the framing pattern, 001011
Frames 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21 and
23 are used for thedata link(totalling half of all
framing bits, or 4000 bits per second)
Frames 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, and 22 are used to pass
theCRCtotal for each previous super frame
Occupies a time slot of 3 ms
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T-1 frame structure

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E line rates

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Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing

in synchronous TDM, each input has a reserved

slot in the output frame.

Inefficient if some input lines have no data to send
In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are
dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth
efficiency
In statistical multiplexing, the number of slots in
each frame is less than the number of input lines
The multiplexer checks each input line in
roundrobin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input
line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips
the line and checks the next line
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Addressing in STDM
In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as

well as the address of the destination.

In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed
relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved
slots
We need to include the address of the receiver
inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered
The addressing in its simplest form can be n bits
to define N different output lines with n =log2N.
For example, for eight different output lines, we
need a 3-bit address.
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Slot Size
Since a slot carries both data and an address

in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data size to

address size must be reasonable to make
transmission efficient.
For example, it would be inefficient to send 1
bit per slot as data when the address is 3 bits.
This would mean an overhead of 300 percent.
In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually
many bytes while the address is just a few
bytes.
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Synchronization Bit & bandwidth

There is another difference between

synchronous and statistical TDM, but this time

it is at the frame level. The frames in
statistical TDM need not be synchronized, so
we do not need synchronization bits
Bandwidth: In statistical TDM, the capacity of
the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of
statistical TDM define the capacity of the link
based on the statistics of the load for each
channel.
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