Lecture 2: Effects of the Earths Rotation

One of the most important physical processes controlling the temporal and
spatial variations of biological variables (nutrients, phytoplankton,
zooplankton, etc) is the oceanic circulation. Since the circulation exists on
the earth, it must be affected by the earths rotation.
Question:

How is the oceanic circulation affected by the earths rotation?

The Coriolis force!

Question: What is the Coriolis force? How is it defined? What is the

difference between centrifugal and Coriolis forces?

Definition:
The Coriolis force is an apparent force that occurs when the fluid moves
on a rotation frame.
The centrifugal force is an apparent force when an objective is on a
rotation frame.
Based on these definitions, we learn that
The centrifugal force can occur when an objective is rest on a rotating
frame;
The Coriolis force occurs only when an objective moves on a rotating
frame.

Centrifugal Force

Consider that a ball of mass m attached to a string whirls

through a circle of radius r at a constant angular velocity .

Conditions:
1) The speed of the ball is constant, but its direction is continuously changing;
2) The string acts like a force to pull the ball toward the axis of rotation.

Let us assume that the velocity of the ball:

V V V V

Vatt
V V att t

V V

V r,and

V
,limitt 0,
t
t

Therefore,

dV
d
d
r
V
V
( )
dt
dt
dt
r

d
,
dt

dV
2r
dt

To keep the ball on the circle track, it must exist an

additional apparent force, which has the same magnitude
as the centripetal acceleration but in an opposite
direction.

This force is called centrifugal force, which is equals to

Fcf 2r

On the earth, the centrifugal force is equal to

Fcf

Fcf 2 R

angular velocity of the earths rotation and R is the position

where is the
vector from the axis of rotation to be objective at a given latitude.

The Coriolis Force

t1 t2 t3
t1
t2
t3

When an objective is moving with respect to a rotating frame, an additional

apparent force appears, which tends to change the direction of the motion.

The Coriolis
force!

Important Concepts:
Any objective on a rotating frame is exerted by the centrifugal force no
matter whether or not it moves.
The Coriolis force exists only when the objective moves on a rotating
frame.

The Coriolis force only changes the direction of the motion.

The centrifugal force could accelerate the motion.
Questions:
How do we define the Coriolis force on the rotating earth?

Assume that a fluid parcel moves eastward at a speed of u.

Since this parcel moves faster than the earth rotation, so the
angular velocity acting on this parcel should be equal to a sum of
the angular velocities of the earth and movement of the parcel as
follows:
u/R

Therefore, the centrifugal force exerting on this parcel is

equal to
u
Fcf ( ) 2 R
R

Then,

u
2uR
Fcf ( ) 2 R 2 R

R
R

Centrifugal force

u2R
R2
Too small

Coriolis force component

( Fc ) y 2u sin ,

2u cos

2 u

R
R

( Fc ) z 2u cos

Since (Fc)z << g in the vertical, it can be ignored.

2u sin

Therefore,

u
Coriolis force
on the northern hemisphere
Usually, we define that

f 2 sin

as the Coriolis parameter.

Fc fvi fuj fk v

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Properties

1.

The Coriolis force is a three-dimensional force. The vertical

component of the Coriolis force is generally ignored in the large-scale
ocean study because it is much smaller than gravity.

2.

On the northern hemisphere, the Coriolis force is 90 o degree to the

right of the current direction, while on the southern hemisphere, it is
90o degree to the left of the current direction.

3.

The Coriolis force changes with latitude and the amplitude of the
currents. At equator, the Coriolis force equals zero and it increases as
latitude becomes higher.

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Questions: What is the role of the Coriolis effect?

1) Inertial motion:

u
fv,
t

v
fu
t

Define that W u iv, we have

W
ifW W Ce ift W Wo e ift
t

where Wo=uo+ivo is the complex form of the initial velocity.

Let us assume that vo=0, then,

u u o cos ft , v u o sin ft
t=3/2f, u=0, v= uo

Discussion:
2
2
2
a) u v u o

This is a circle!

t=/f, u= -uo, v=0

t=0, u=uo, v=0

Inertial period:
Tf

2
f

t=/2f, u=0, v=-uo

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The inertial period decreases with latitude,

1)

at equator: Tf : no inertial motion because f = 0;

2)

at 30o N: Tf = 23.9 hours

3)

at 45o N, Tf = 17 hours

4)

at 90o N, Tf = 12 hours

In the real ocean, the inertial oscillation is usually caused by a sudden change
of the wind stress. If you trace a drifter, its trajectory would look like

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Definition of the Motion Scale

The time scale of the inertial motion on the earth is O(1/f ) and the advective
time scale is O(L/U), then Rossby number ( non-dimensional) is defined as

Ro

Inertial time scale

O(1 / f )
U

O( )
Advective time scale O( L / U )
fL

The motion scale is defined by

Ro 1, Large - scale : Coriolis force is dominant
R o ~ 1, Meso - scale :

Coriolis force is important and can not be ignored

R o 1, Small - scale

Coriolis force can be ignored

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Open Boundaries
Wind stress

x
Wind-induced Ekman layer

Interior geostrophic layer

Bottom Ekman layer

Bottom log-boundary layer

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1) Wind-induced surface Ekman layer

2u
fv E K m
z 2
2v
fu E K m
z 2

Coriolis force = Vertical diffusion

Boundary conditions:
Km

u E
z

uE

0,

Km

z 0

vE

v E
z

z 0

y
o

at the surface
at the bottom (boundary scale)

Solution satisfying the equations and boundary conditions is

y
z
z
e h (cos
sin
)
uE
o fhE
hE
hE

z
v y e h (cos z sin z )
E
o fhE
hE
hE

hE

2K m
f

Ekman layer thickness

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Discussion:
a) Current
profile:
The Ekman velocity decreases and rotates clockwisely with depth

Ekman spiral.

b) The Ekman layer thickness (depth):

hE

directly proportional to turbulent viscosity coefficient and inversely

proportional to the Coriolis parameter.

2K m
f

b) The direction of the surface Ekman current:

The angle between the wind stress and surface Ekman current
is 45o. On the northern hemisphere, the surface Ekman current
is 45o on the right of the wind stress.
y 45o vE

v
tan E 1 , 45 o
uE

c) The total volume transport:

0

U u E dz

V v E dz

y
fhE

fhE

z
hE

e (cos
z
hE

e (cos

y
z
z
sin )dz
;
hE
hE
o f
z
z
sin )dz 0
hE
hE

transport

The volume transport is always 90o to the direction

of the wind stress. On the northern hemisphere, it is
on the right of the wind stress.

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d) Vertical velocity:
0

hE

u v w

)dz 0
x y z

w z h
E

U V
1 y

x
y
f x

If we extend it to a general case with x and y component of the wind, we get

w z h
E

U V
1 y x
1

)
k curl
x
y
f x
y
o f

The vertical velocity at the bottom of the surface Ekman layer is proportional to the vorticity of the

surface wind stress and it is independent of the detailed structure of the Ekman flow. the vertical
velocity is positive for the positive vorticity of the wind stress, and negative for the negative
vorticity of the wind stress.
curl 0

Ekman pumping

hE
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Summary figure

45

hE

vE

UE

vE

45o

(Ekman volume transport)

90o

UE

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2) Interior geostrophic layer

Turbulent mixing is weak, the motion is approximately geostrophic

ug

1 P
,
f y

vg

1 P
f x

Coriolis force = Pressure gradient force

FP (The pressure gradient force)

P0

FP

t0

Vg

t1

Vg

P1

t2

Geostrophic
adjustment

Fc

Fc
P2

Fc (The Coriolis force)

Fc

Where does the energy come here?

Vorticity of the wind

stress (Ekman pumping)

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3) The Bottom Ekman boundary layer

1 P
2u

fv

K
m

x
z 2

2
fu 1 P K m v

y
z 2

Coriolis force=Pressure gradient force+Vertical diffusion

Surface wind stress drives the surface Ekman layer and also transport the energy the interior layer. The
energy driving the bottom boundary layer could be come from the interior geostrophic motion.
For this linear case,
1 P
u

f y

1 P
vg

f x

u u g vE , v vg vE

2u E
fv E K m
z 2
2vE
fu E K m
z 2

Boundary conditions:
u z u g

u z H 0

v z v g
v z H 0

uE

vE

0
u g
z H
z

vE
vE

0
v g
z H

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Solutions:

u u g u E u g (1 e

v v v v (1 e
g
E
g

zH
hE

zH
hE

zH
cos
) vg e
hE

zH
cos
) uge
hE

zH
hE
zH
hE

sin

zH
hE

sin

zH
hE

Discussion:
a) Bottom stress:

bx

by

K
u E
Km
m (u g v g )
z
hE
K
v
K m E m (u g v g )
z
hE

The interior geostrophic current is 45o on

the right of the bottom stress.

For a simple case: vg = 0, ug > 0

bx by

Km
ug ,
hE

tan

by
1,
bx

45 o

45o

ug
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b) Total velocity and Ekman velocity:

Total velocity (a sum of geostrophic and Ekman velocities) rotates counterclockwise with depth.
It reaches the geostrophic current at the top of the Ekman layer and vanishes at the bottom.
Ekman velocity decreases and rotates clockwise with the height (from the bottom. It is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the geostrophic velocity at the bottom and vanish at the
top of the bottom Ekman layer.

vE

v
with depth

with height

ug u
(top)

-ug

(bottom)

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uE

c) Total volume transport:

The volume transport is always 90o on the right of the bottom frictional force (on the northern
hemisphere). Unlike the volume transport in the surface Ekman layer, the transport in the bottom
boundary is related to the Ekman layer thickness and magnitude of the geostrophic current in the
interior.
by

Km
hE2
1
UE

ug
u g u g hE
f
fhE
2hE
2

Note: by is the bottom stress exerting from the fluid on the bottom. The bottom frictional force is
equal in magnitude and opposite to the bottom stress.

by
(transport) UE

-by (bottom frictional force)

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d) Balance of the forces:

FP

FB
FC
The flow is driven in a balance between the pressure gradient, Coriolis and bottom frictional forces.
The pressure gradient force is normal to the interior geostrophic current and does not change with
depth. When these three forces reaches a balance, the motion reaches a steady state.

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4) The bottom log boundary layer

In a very thin layer close to the bottom, the turbulent viscosity-induced stress is much larger than the
Coriolis and pressure gradient forces. In this layer, the stress does not change with depth:

0
z

This is also called the constant

stress boundary layer

According to the definition of the stress, we have

u
K m
z

u*2
u
1

( )
z K m
Km

u* : the frictional velocity

Assume that mixing length l z , where is von Karman constant

, then we have

u
u u* u*

u * (ln z C )
z l z

Define zo is the roughness height, at which turbulence-induced stress equals to zero, then
u

u*
z
ln

zo

zo :

0.01 mm ~ 60 mm

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