MN331- ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

AND MAPPING
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Lecture 5

FOLDS

Dr. Kaul Gena

1.0 Introduction: Folds

Folds are amongst the most common tectonic structures found in
rocks, and can make some of the most spectacular features. They
can occur on all scales and in all environments.
In areas of active mountain building, as for example here in the
front ranges of the Himalayas in Pakistan (right), folds bulge up
the landscape. The upward moving parts (called antiforms) create
hills while the areas that have gone down relative to the hills
(called synforms) collect detritus eroded from the surrounding
countryside. A common misconception is that rocks can only fold
when they are nearly molten. These outcrops tell a different story.
Rocks like these limestones can fold even at the Earth's surface provided they are given enough time. A fold like this could take a
hundred thousand years to grow. But if the rocks were pushed
together more quickly - they could break - making faults.

1.0 Introduction - folds

Folds can occur on all scales.
These folds from the island of
Syros only have a wavelength of
a few millimetres. To make
folds the rocks must have a
mechanical layering. If they are
homogeneous they will just
squash together without folding.
A stiff layer (more viscous) will
fold if embedded in weaker (less
viscous) material. You can try
this yourself - using different
types of plasticene

2.0 DESCRIBING FOLDS

Folds are wonderful things and highly variable.

There's a lots of terms used for describing them.
More usefully, there are many ways of measuring
them so that we can quantify their shape and
orientation. From these careful descriptions we can
learn more about how folds form and what they might
be telling us about the larger-scale tectonics.

Basic geometry of Folds

Example of Fold

How to classify Folds

If you've studied how to describe folds you can now get involved in more
complex ideas. Folds needed sit upright but can have
various orientations. They can be symmetric or asymmetric about their
axial surfaces. Their hinge lines can be straight (like wrapping a cloth
around a broom handle) or be curved along their length. Folds can be
considered as wave-forms and so can be harmonic or disharmonic
through a sequence of layers - click here to find out more. In many rock
sequences folds form on different scales. The smaller ones are described
as being parasitic upon the backs of larger ones.

Fold Orientation

Symmetric or Asymmetric Fold

Vergence, Facing

Detailed observations on a small scale can be invaluable

for building up a large-scale picture of rock structure. In
many parts of the world this is the only way of deducing
how rocks are organised beyond an individual outcrop.
There are two key concepts, vergence and facing.

Curved along their Length

Examples of Cylindrical and Curvilinear Fold

Harmony

Parasitic Folds

Use them

Measuring Folds

Some of the key things to measure on folds are

outlined here. As folds are waveforms you can
measure their wavelength and amplitude. You can
also measure how tight they are. These
measurements must be done correctly - looking in
the true profile plane of the fold. The problems of
an oblique view can be judged from next slide. To
get the correct direct you should measure the hinge
line and fold axial surface next slides.

Wavelength & Amplitude

Tightness of Fold

Tightness of Fold

Measuring -True Profile of Fold

Measure hinge line & fold axial surface

Cleavage and Folds

Cleavage often goes hand in hand with folding. You can find out more about
the different sorts of cleavage elsewhere [link to go in later]. However, the
neat thing about cleavage is that in ideal cases its orientation is parallel to
the axial surface of local folds - when it is refered to as "axial planar
cleavage". In this ideal situation, and even if it fans a bit, the intersection of
cleavage planes with the bedding planes (the intersection of two planes is a
line of course) will be parallel to the hinge line of the fold. You can study
these relationships by next slide. Cleavage-bedding relationships can also be
used to help unravel large-scale structure using the vergence concept.

Vergence
concept

Folds on Maps
Maps are a good way of studying folds
and they can give precise information
about their 3D shape. You can study the
two examples here to find out more. Both
have hard-copy files that you can print out
for revision purposes. The key thing is to
develop strategies to visualise the
structures in 3D while making the
interpretation. And at some stage you'll
need to construct structure contours - on
axial surfaces!

3. Fold Mechanisms
There are lots of different types of folds.
How do they all form? One thing is clear there's no single mechanism that explains
all types of folds. They form in different
ways. The pages linked from the icons
take you through the different types of
folds and how they might form.
(a) Types of Folding
(b) How do they do it.

 Shear Fold
Forced Folds
Buckle Folds

Shear Fold

Shear Fold

Forced Folds
Forced folds" is an unusual term for those folds that are
required to form geometrically as the result of another
process. A common type of fold results because of
movement along irregularly-shaped faults. These are
termed "fault-bend folds" and you can see an example
by next slide. Other folds can develop as a result of
sediments draping over pre-existing basement
topography. Others again can form as a consequence of
magma being intruded - inflating a magma chamber. You
can return to the menu on the types of folds by clicking
here.

Forced fold

Buckle Fold

Buckle folds are extremely common. They form when layers are
compressed along their length. These structures have been studied
for many years. You can even make your own - by squeezing
plasticene layers in a vice or between your hands. This sequence
looks are simple buckles of single layers. But rocks contain many
layers and these can interact. To see these effects, including how
parasitic folds may form. However, if layering is very intense,
folds develop with highly angular hinges - kinks

Buckle Folds

 Flexural Flow
Flexural slip
Tangential longitudinal Strain

Flexural Flow

Flexural slip

Tangential Longitudinal Strain

 In many areas, particularly within the internal parts of

mountain belts, folds can be developed more than once.
Consequently outcrops and regions can show patterns that
indicate fold interference, generated by a later set of folds
refolding another. You can see some of the spectacular
patterns that result from fold interference by clicking on
the icons. All examples come from the classic site originally
described by John Ramsay in the 1950s.
The analysis of polyphase fold patterns appears complex
but is straightforward so long as you are systematic

Ramsay 1

A "type 1" fold interference pattern, characterised

by domes and basins. Looking down on the
outcrop surface, this pattern derives from two
upright fold sets, one trending L-R across the
screen and the other up and down. Classic outcrop
from Loch Monar, Scotland.

Ramsay 2

A "type 2" fold interference pattern which generates

rather strange "winged" or "butterfly" outcrop
patterns. Looking down on the outcrop, this pattern
results from a recumbent first phase of folding (with
hinges trending up and down the screen) followed by
upright folds trending L-R. Loch Monar, Scotland.

Ramsay 3

A "type 3" fold interference pattern which

generates tongue-shapes. These shapes
original from near-recumbent axial surfaces
being refolded by upright folds, but with hinge
lines nearly parallel.

Polyphase fold analysis

Polyphase fold analysis

Polyphase fold analysis

Polyphase fold analysis

Polyphase fold analysis

Polyphase fold analysis