ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE:

A Global Concern, 5th edition

William P. Cunningham
University of Minnesota
Barbara Woodworth Saigo
Saiwood Biology Resources

CHAPTER 1
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
AND ECOLOGICAL
PRINCIPLES

What is Environmental Science?

Environment
Environmental Science
History of Environmental Science
utilitarian conservation
altruistic preservation

CURRENT CONDITIONS
Planet Earth
Environmental Dilemmas

population
food shortages
energy
pollution

A DIVIDED WORLD
Rich vs. Poor
North vs. South
Developed countries vs. undeveloped
countries
First, Second, Third and Fourth World
Countries

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human Development Index

Developmental Discrepancies
basic social services
education
health care

agrarian reform
employment
civil rights
sustainable resource use

Sustainable Development

ENVIRONMENTAL
PERSPECTIVES
Neo-Malthusian
Technological optimists/Promethean
environmentalism
Cornucopian Fallacy
Lessons from the Past

CHAPTER 2
TOOLS FOR BUILDING A
BETTER WORLD

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy

Universal Ethical Principles
Relativists
Nihilists
Utilitarians

Modernism & Postmodernism

Values, Rights & Obligations

Morals
Animal Rights
Inherent Value
Instrumental Value

Worldviews and Ethical

Perspectives

Domination
Stewardship
Biocentrism
Ecofeminism

Environmental Justice
Environmental racism
Toxic colonialism
Is Nature fragile or resilient?

Science as a Way of Knowing

Scientific Method
Hypotheses Testing
Indirect Scientific Evidence
Technology and Progress
Appropriate Technology

CHAPTER 3
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

From Atoms to Cells

Atoms
ions
atomic number

Molecules
compound

Organic Compounds
carbon

Cells

Energy Types and Qualities

Kinetic Energy
heat
temperature

Potential Energy
Chemical Energy
Conservation of Matter
Thermodynamics
1st law
2nd law

Energy for Life

Solar Energy
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
cellular respiration

From Species to Ecosystems

Population
Communities
biological community

Ecosystems

Food Chains
Productivity/biomass
Food chain/food web
Trophic level
producers
consumers

Organisms
herbivores
carnivores
omnivores

Material Cycles and Life Processes

Carbon Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Sulfur Cycle

CHAPTER 4
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
AND SPECIES INTERACTION

Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?

Temperature
Moisture levels
Nutrient supply
Soil chemistry
Water chemistry

 Natural Selection
Adaptation
Evolution
HABITAT

SPECIES
INTERACTIONS AND
COMMUNITY
DYNAMICS

Predation
Predators
parasites
Pathogens

Prey

Competition
Intraspecific competition
Interspecific competition
Territoriality

Symbiosis
Commensalism
Mutualism

Community Properties

Productivity
Abundance and Diversity
Complexity and Connectedness
Resilience and Stability
Structure
Edges and Boundaries

Ecological Succession

Primary Succession
Secondary Succession
Pioneer Species
Ecological Development
Climax Community

Introduced Species and Community Change

CHAPTER 5
BIOMES, LANDSCAPES,
RESOTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT

Terrestrial Biomes
Deserts
Grasslands
Prairies
Savannas

Tundra
Conifer Forests
Evergreen Forests
Tropical Forests
Tropical Seasonal Forests

Aquatic Ecosystems
Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems
Estuaries and Wetlands
Shorelines and Barrier Islands
Coral reefs

Landscape Ecology
Patchiness & Heterogeneity
Landscape Dynamics

Restoration Ecology

Rehabilitation
Remediation
Reclamation
Re-creation
Nature, self-healing

CHAPTER 6
POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population Growth

Exponential Growth
Geometric Growth
Arithmetic Growth
J Curve

Population Oscillations and

Irruptive Growth
Dieback
Overshoot
Irruptive or Malthusian growth

Growth to a Stable Population

Logistic growth
Environmental resistance

Strategies of Population Growth

Malthusian Strategies
Logistic Strategies

Factors affecting Population

Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility

Immigration
Mortality and survivorship
Age Structure
Emigration
Education

Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates

Education/affluence
Importance of children to family labor force
Urbanization
Cost - raising and educating children
Education & Employment opportunity - women
Infant mortality rate
Average marriage age
Availability - pension
Birth control
Religious beliefs, tradition and culture

Factors Affecting Death Rate

Nutrition
Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity
Health and technology

 Teen Pregnancy in the USA

Migration
Immigration

Population Age Structure

Ways of classifying
Pre-reproductive age
Reproductive age
Post-reproductive age

Solutions Influencing Population

Controlling Migration
Reducing Birth Rates

Economic development
Family planning
Economic rewards
Empowering women

Population Control Studies

India
China

Population Distribution
Urbanization and Growth

The future is urban

Hyper-urbanization - LDCs
The United States and other MDCs
Spatial patterns of development

CHAPTER 7
HUMAN POPULATIONS

Population Growth
Birth Rates
Over-population
Technology and Ingenuity

Limits to Population Growth

Malthusian checks
Karl Marx
Neo-Malthusian
Technology solutions?
Can More people be Beneficial?

Human Demography

Fertility
Birthrate
Zero population growth
Mortality and death rates
Population growth rates
Life span and life expectancy
dependency ratio

Emigration and Immigration

Population Growth: Opposition

Pronatalist/Social Pressures
Birth Reduction Pressures
Education
Birth control
Economics

Demographic Transition

Improved living conditions

Development and Population
Optimistic View
Pessimistic View
Social Justice View
Ecojustice View
Infant Mortality
Womens Rights

Family Planning & Fertility Control

Birth Control

Celibacy
Mechanical barriers
Surgery
Chemicals
Implantation of physical controls
Abortion

CHAPTER 8
ECOLOGICAL
ECONOMICS

Classical Economics

Diminished Returns
Demand
Supply
Market Equilibrium
Marginal Costs
Price Elasticity

 Neoclassical Economics
Karl Marx
E. F. Schumacher

Ecological Economics
steady-state economy

Resources, Capital and Reserves

Resource Types

Capital
Resource
Nonrenewable resources
Renewable resources
Intangible resources

Economic Resource Categories

Proven resources
Known resources
Undiscovered resources
Recoverable resources

Population, Technology, and Scarcity

Market Efficiencies
Increasing Environmental Carrying
Capacity
Economic Models
Why Not Conserve Resources?

Natural Resource Accounting

Gross National Product (GNP)

Human Development Index (HDI)
Non-market Values
Cost/Benefit Ratios
Green Business
Jobs and the Environment

Sustainability
Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 9
ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH AND
TOXICOLOGY

Health Hazards
Infectious Diseases
Respiratory diseases

pneumonia
tuberculosis
influenza
whooping cough

Malaria
Parasitic Mematodes
Schistosomiasis
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Trachoma
STDs

Toxic Chemicals

Irritants
Respiratory fibrotic agents
Asphyxiants
Allergens
Neurotoxins
Mutagens
Teratogens
Carcinogens

 Natural and Synthetic Toxin

Physical Agents
radiation

Trauma
stress

Diet

Chemical Hazards and Toxicology

Dose and response
LD5O factor

Acute effect
Chronic effect
Types

toxic substances
hazardous
carcinogens
mutagens
teratogens

Movement, Distribution and

Fate of Toxins

Solubility
Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
Persistence
Chemical Interactions

Minimizing Toxic Effects

Metabolic Degradation
Excretion
Repair Mechanisms

Measuring Toxicity

Animal Testing
Toxicity Ratings
Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects
Detection Limits

Assessment
Risks
Acceptable risks??

Risk Analysis

Identifying Risks
The Greatest Risks
Problems - Risk Assessment
Risk-Benefit Analysis
Managing Risks

CHAPTER 10
FOOD, HUNGER AND
NUTRITION

Human Nutrition
Energy Needs
undernourishment
over-nourishment

Nutritional Needs

proteins
carbohydrates
lipids and oils
minerals
vitamins

World Food Resoureces

Major Crops
wheat
rice
corn
potatoes

Meat and Milk

Croplands

Increasing Food Production

Green Revolution
Technology
Genetic Engineering
Increased Farm Output

New Food Sources

Blue Revolution
Aqua-culture

Agricultural Economics

Food Supplies
Food Subsidies
Agricultural Aid
International Food Trade
Cash Crops

 World Hunger
Famines
Food Shortages

CHAPTER 11
SOIL RESOURECES
AND SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE

What is soil?
Soil, a renewable resource
Soil composition
humus

Soil organisms
Soil profiles

top soil
sub-soil
parent material
bedrock

Use and Abuse of Soil

Land Resources
Land Degradation

Erosion
Types of erosion

sheet erosion
rill erosion
gully erosion
streambank erosion

Erosion in the United States

Erosion in other countries

Agricultural Resources

Water
Fertilizer
Climate
Energy
Crop Diversity

Soil Conservation
Managing Topography

contour plowing
strip-farming
tied ridges
terracing

Providing Ground Cover

cover crops
mulch

Reduced Tillage Systems

CHAPTER 12
PEST CONTROL

What are Pest and Pesticides?

Biological Pests
Insects
Large animals

Botanical Pests
Weeds

Pesticides
Insecticides

Herbicides
Fungicides

Pest Controls
Early Controls
Botanical
Chemical

Modern Controls
Synthetic chemicals
DDT

Pesticide Types
Inorganic pesticides
Natural organic pesticides
botanicals

Fumigants
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Organophosphates
Carbamates
Microbial agents

Pesticide Benefits
Disease control
Crop protection
Increased crop production

Pesticide Problems

Effects on Nontarget Species

Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence
Creation of New Pests
Persistence and Mobility in the
Environment
Human Health Problems

Alternative Pesticide Uses

Crop rotation
Biological controls
predatory insects
pathogens

Herbivorous insects
Genetic and bioengineering

Reducing Pesticide Exposure

Regulation
EPA
USDA

Personal Safety

CHAPTER 13
BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and Species Concept

What is Biodiversity?
What are species?
Number of species

Benefits of Biodiversity

Food
Drugs
Medicine
Ecological Benefits
Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits

Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction
Natural Causes
Mass Extinction

Human-Caused Reductions in
Biodiversity

Habitat Destruction
Hunting and Fishing
Commercial products and Live Specimens
Predator and Pest Control
Exotic Species Introductions
Disease
Pollution
Genetic Assimilation

Biodiversity Protection

Hunting and Fishing Laws

Endangered Species Act
Recovery Plans
Private Land and Critical Habitat
Minimum Viable Populations
Habitat Protection
International Wildlife Treaties
Zoos
Botanical Gardens
Captive Breeding Programs

CHAPTER 14
LAND USE: FORESTS AND
RANGELANDS

World Land Use

Forest, 30%
Range and pasture, 26%
Cropland, 1%
Other, 33

tundra
desert
wetlands
urban areas

World Forests
Forest Distribution
Closed canopy
Open canopy
Woodland

Forest Products
Industrial Timber
Fuelwood

Tropical Forests

Diminishing Forests
Swidden Agriculture
Logging and Land Invasions
Forest Protection
Reforestation

Debt-for-Nature Swaps

Temperate Forests

Ancient forest/old growth forests

Wilderness Protection
Wildlife Protection
Harvesting old growth forests
clear-cutting
strip-cutting
selective-cutting

Fire Management

Rangelands
Range Management
Overgrazing and Land
Degradation
desertification

Forage Conversion
Harvesting Wild Animals

Rangelands in the U.S.

Bureau of Land Management
State of the Range
feral animals

Grazing Fees

Land Ownership
Who owns what?
Land Reform
Indigenous Lands

CHAPTER 15
PRESERVING NATURE

Parks and Nature Preserves

Origins and History
Natural Landscaping

North American Parks

Existing Systems
U.S. National Park System
Park Problems

Over crowding
Roads
Commercialism
Pollution

Wildlife
New Directions
New Parks

World Parks and Preserves

Biosphere Reserves
Protecting Natural Heritage
Size and Design of Nature Preserves

recreation areas
historic areas
conservation areas
pristine research areas

Conservation and Economic Development

Indigenous Communities

Wilderness Areas
Wildlife Refuges
Refuge Management
International Wildlife Preserves
poaching

Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal

Regions
Wetland Values
Wetland Destruction
Floods and Flood Control
Floodplains

Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries

CHAPTER 16
EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL
RESOURCES

Earth, A Dynamic Sphere

Earths Layers

Crust
Mantle
Outer Core
Inner Core

Tectonic Processes
Tectonic Plates
Magma

Shifting Continents

Rock Types & How They Formed

Igneous Rock
Weathering
Sedimentation
Sedimentary Rock
Biogenic Sedimentation
Metamorphic Rock

Mineralogy
Metals
Nonmetal Minerals
Strategic Minerals

Environmental Effects of Resource

Extraction

Mining

tunneling
water leakage
strip mining

Processing
water pollution
chemical emissions

Conserving Mineral Resources

Recycling
Aluminum & Platinum
Steel & Iron

Substituting New Materials for Old Ones

Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunami

Volcanoes
Floods

CHAPTER 17
AIR, CLIMATE, AND
WEATHER

The Atmosphere,
Composition & Structure
Gas Mixture
Layered Envelope

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
Ionosphere

Weather Engine
Solar Radiation/ Heat
Albedo (reflectivity)
Greenhouse effect

Convection Currents
Water vapor

Weather

Energy Balance in the Atmosphere

Convection Cells
Prevailing Winds
Jet Streams
Frontal Weather
cold and warm fronts
Cyclonic Storms
hurricanes and tornadoes
Seasonal Winds
monsoon
Weather Modification

Climate
Climatic Catastrophes
Ice Ages

Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic

Changes
Milankovitch Cycles

El Nio

Human-caused Global
Climate Change
Greenhouse Gases
Carbon Dioxide
Aerosols

Sources

Burning Fossil Fuels

Industrial Processes
Deforestation
Agriculture

Effects of Climate Change

Temperature Changes
Impact on Plants and Animals
Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines
Melting Ice Packs
Possible Increase of Disease

Cutting Emissions

United Nations Earth Summit

Kyoto Protocol
Developed Nations
Developing Nations

CHAPTER 18
AIR POLLUTION

Natural Sources of Air Pollution

Volcanoes
Emissions from vegetation

Human-Caused Air Pollution

Primary pollutants
Secondary pollutants
Fugitive emissions

Conventional or Criteria
Pollutants

Sulfur compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Carbon Oxides
Metals and Halogens
Particulate Materials
Volatile Organic Compounds
Photochemical Oxidants

Unconventional Pollutants

Emissions & emissions standards

Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants
Aesthetic degradation
Indoor air Pollution
smoke

Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric

Processes

Inversions
Dust Domes and Heat Islands
Long Range Transport
Stratospheric Ozone
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Effects of Air Pollution

Human Health
bronchitis
emphysema

Plant Pathology
Acid Deposition

pH and atmospheric acidity

aquatic effects
forest damage
buildings and monuments
visibility reduction

Air Pollution Control

Moving Pollution to Remote Areas
Particulate Removal
filters
Sulfur Removal
fuel switching and fuel cleaning
limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion
flue gas desulfurization
sulfur recovery processes
Nitrogen Oxide Control
Hydrocarbon Controls

Clean Air Legislation

Clean Air Act of 1963
Amendments of 1970
Amendments of 1990
Acid rain
Urban smog
Toxic air pollutants
Ozone protection
Marketing pollution rights
Toxic organic compounds
EPA

CHAPTER 19
WATER USE AND
MANAGEMENT

Water Resources

Hydrologic Cycle
Evaporation/Sublimation
Saturation Point
Relative humidity
Condensation
Dew Point
Rainfall & Topography
Rain Shadow
Desert Belts
Balancing the Water Budget

Major Water Compartments

Oceans
Glaciers, Ice, & Snow
Ground Water
infiltration
water table
aquifers
Rivers and Streams
Lakes and Ponds
Wetlands
The Atmosphere

Water Availability and Use

Water Supplies
Drought Cycles
Types of Water Use
Withdrawal
Consumption
Degradation

Quantities of Water Use

Use by Sector

Freshwater Shortages
A Scarce Resource
Depleting Groundwater
subsidence
sinkholes

Increasing Water Supplies

Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs

Desalination
Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts
Environmental Costs
Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation
Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers

Water Management & Conservation

Watershed Management
Domestic Conservation
Industrial and Agricultural Conservation
Price Mechanisms

CHAPTER 20
WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution
Point Sources
Non-point Sources
Atmospheric Deposition

Types and Effects of

Water Pollution

Infectious Agents
Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication
Toxic Inorganic Materials
Heavy Metals
Nonmetallic Salts
Acids and Bases
Organic Chemicals
Sediments
Thermal Pollution

Water Quality Today

Surface Water in the U.S. &
Canada
Surface Water in other Countries
Groundwater and Drinking Water
Supplies
Ocean Pollution

Water Pollution Control

Source Reduction
Non-point Sources and Land Management

Agriculture
Urban runoff
Construction sites
Land disposal

 Human Waste Disposal

Natural Processes
Municipal Sewage Treatment
Primary treatment
Secondary treatment
Tertiary treatment

Low-Cost Waste Treatment

effluent sewerage

Water Legislation
Clean Water Act
Clean Water Act Reauthorization
Other Important Water Legislation
Safe Drinking Water Act
Superfund
Great lakes Water Quality Agreement

CHAPTER 21
CONVENTIONAL
ENERGY

Energy
A Brief History
Current Energy Sources

Fossil fuels
Nuclear power
Hydroelectric
Solar

Per Capita Consumption

Energy Use

Coal
Coal Resources and Reserves
Mining
Air Pollution

Oil
Oil Resources and Reserves
Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies
Oil Shales and Tar Sands

Natural Gas
Natural Gas Resources and Reserves
Unconventional Gas Sources
Methane hydrate

Nuclear Power

Nuclear Reactors: How They Work?

Types of Reactors
Alternative Reactor Designs
Breeder Reactors

Radioactive Waste Management

Ocean Dumping
Land Disposal
high-level waste repository
monitored, retrievable storage

Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants

Changing Fortunes of Nuclear

Power
Changing Public Opinion
Nuclear Fusion
Magnetic confinement
Inertial confinement

CHAPTER 22
SUSTAINABLE
ENERGY

Conservation
Utilization Efficiencies
Energy Conversion Efficiencies
net energy yield

Negawatt programs
Co-generation

Tapping Solar Energy

A Vast Resource
Passive Solar Heat
Active Solar Heat
Eutectic Chemicals

High-Temperature Solar Energy

Solar Cookers
Promoting Renewable Energy
Photovaltaic Solar Energy
Photovoltaic Cells

Storing Electrical Energy

Energy from Biomass

Burning Biomass
Fuelwood crisis in LDCs
Dung and Methane as Fuels
Alcohol from Biomass
gasohol

Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat

Energy from the Earths Forces

Hydropower
Dams and Hydro Generators

Wind Energy
Wind Farms

Geothermal Energy
Tidal and Wave Energy
Tidal Stations

Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion

CHAPTER 23
SOLID, TOXIC AND
HAZARDOUS WASTE

Solid Waste
Waste Stream

Paper, 38%
Yard waste, 17%
Metals, 8%
Plastics, 8%
Glass, 7%
Food, 7%
Miscellaneous, 14%

Waste Disposal Methods

Open Dumps
Ocean Dumpings
Landfills
Export Waste
Incineration and Resource Recovery
Types of incinerators
refuse-derived fuel
mass burn

Incinerator Cost and Safety

Reducing the Waste Stream

Recycling
Composting
Energy from Waste
Reuse
Producing Less Waste
Photodegradable plastics
Biodegradable plastics

Hazardous and Toxic Wastes

Hazardous Waste Disposal
Superfund
Hazardous Waste Management
Produce Less Waste
Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
Physical treatments
Chemical treatments
Bioremediation

Store Permanently
Retrievable Storage

CHAPTER 24
URBANIZATION AND
SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Urbanization
What is a city?

Rural area
Urban area
Village
City
Megacity
Core region

World Urbanization

Causes of Urban Growth

Immigration Push Factors
Immigration Pull Factors
Government Policies

Urban Problems
The Developing World

Traffic and Congestion

Air Pollution
Sewer Systems and Water Pollution
Housing
Slums
Shantytowns
Squatter Towns

 The Developed World

Urban Problems
Urban Renewal
Noise

Transportation and City Growth

Transportation methods
horse & buggy
automobiles

Roads/freeways

City Planning
History
Garden Cities and New Towns
Cities of the Future
technopolis

Urban Redesign
Design for Open space
conservation

 Urban Redesign

Limit size
Development areas
Shopping malls into city centers
Convenience for shopping and services
Job location
Exercise areas
Diverse housing
Superblocks
Self-sustainable food and waste centers
Public participation

CHAPTER 25
WHAT THEN SHALL WE
DO?

Environmental Education
Environmental Literacy
Environmental Careers

Individual Accountability
Shopping for Green Products

precycling
Non toxic products
recyclable products
natural products
Environmentally friendly products

Blue Angels and Green Seals

Limits of Green Consumerism
Paying Attention to Whats Important

Collective Actions

Student Environmental Groups

Mainline Environmental Organizations
Broadening the Environmental Agenda
Deep or Shallow Environmentalism
Radical Environmental Groups
Anti-environmental Backlash

Global Issues
Public Opinions and Environmental
Protection
Post materialist values

Sustainable Development
International Nongovernmental
Organizations

Green Government and Politics

Green Politics
Green Parties

Green Plans
National Legislation
Courts
Executive Branch
Environmental Impact Statements
International Environmental Treaties and
Conventions