ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS 225

(ANE 620S)

Objectives
Overview of Power Supplies

Samuel Dipura

Power Supply
All

electronic circuits need a power source to work.

For electronic circuits made up of transistors and/or ICs, this power
source must be a DC voltage of a specific value.
A battery is a common DC voltage source for some types of
electronic equipment especially portables like cell phones and iPods.
Most non-portable equipment uses power supplies that operate from
the AC power line but produce one or more DC outputs

Samuel Dipura

Power Supply Characteristics

The input is the 120 volt 60 Hz

AC power line. Alternately, the
input may be 240 volt AC.
The power supply converts the
AC into DC and provides one or
more DC output voltages.
Some modern electronic circuits
need two or more different
voltages.
Common voltages are 48, 24, 15,
12, 9, 5, 3.3, 2.5, 1.8, 1.5, 1.2
and 1 volts.
A good example of a modern
power supply is the one inside a
PC that furnishes 12, 5, 3.3 and
1.2 volts.

Samuel Dipura

Components of a Power Supply

Main

circuits in most power supplies.

Digital-Ramp ADC

Samuel Dipura

Power Supply

The AC line is first passed

through a low pass filter of
the form shown in figure.
This eliminates noise on
the AC line from bothering
the power supply circuits
and prevents unwanted
signals from the power
supply from being
transferred back into the
AC line where they might
interfere with other
equipment.

Transformer

A transformer is commonly used to step the input AC

voltage level down or up. Most electronic circuits operate
from voltages lower than the AC line voltage so the
transformer normally steps the voltage down by its turns
ratio to a desired lower level.
For example, a transformer with a turns ratio of 10 to 1
would convert the 120 volt 60 Hz input sine wave into a 12
volt sine wave.
6

Rectifier

The rectifier converts the AC sine wave into a pulsating

DC wave.
There are several forms of rectifiers used but all are
made up of diodes.
Rectifier types and operation will be covered later.

Filter

The rectifier produces a DC output but it is pulsating

rather than a constant steady value over time like that
from a battery.
A filter is used to remove the pulsations and create a
constant output.
The most common filter is a large capacitor.

Regulator
The

regulator is a circuit that helps maintain

a fixed or constant output voltage.
Changes in the load or the AC line voltage
will cause the output voltage to vary.
Most electronic circuits cannot withstand the
variations since they are designed to work
properly with a fixed voltage.
The regulator fixes the output voltage to the
desired level then maintains that value
despite any output or input variations.
9

DC-DC Converter

Most modern power supplies also contain one or more

DC-DC converters
Modern electronics often demand different voltages to
function.
A DC-DC converter changes one DC voltage to another,
higher or lower DC voltage.
A DC-DC converter is used with a power supply to
prevent the need for a second AC-DC supply.

10

How Rectifiers Work

The simplest form of rectifier is

the half wave rectifier shown.
Only the transformer, rectifier
diode, and load (RL) are shown
without the filter and other
components.
The half wave rectifier produces
one sine pulse for each cycle of
the input sine wave.
When the sine wave goes
positive, the anode of the diode
goes positive causing the diode
to be forward biased. The diode
conducts and acts like a closed
switch letting the positive pulse
of the sine wave to appear
across the load resistor.

11

How Rectifiers Work (continued)

When the sine wave goes

negative, the diode anode will
be negative so the diode will be
reverse biased and no current
will flow.
No negative voltage will appear
across the load. The load
voltage will be zero during the
time of the negative half cycle.
See the waveforms that show
the positive pulses across the
load. These pulses need to be
converted to a constant DC.

12

Bridge Rectifier

Another widely used rectifier is

the bridge rectifier. It uses four
diodes.
This is called a full wave
rectifier as it produces an
output pulse for each half cycle
of the input sine wave.
On the positive half cycle of the
input sine wave, diodes D1 and
D2 are forward biased so act
as closed switches appearing
in series with the load.
On the negative half cycle,
diode D1 and D2 are reverse
biased and diodes D3 and D4
are forward biased so current
flows through the load in the
same direction.

13

How the Filter Works

A large capacitor is connected

across the load resistor. This
capacitor filters the pulses into
a more constant DC.
When the diode conducts, the
capacitor charges up to the
peak of the sine wave.
Then when the sine voltage
drops, the charge on the
capacitor remains. Since the
capacitor is large it forms a
long time constant with the load
resistor. The capacitor slowly
discharges into the load
maintaining a more constant
output.
The next positive pulse comes
along recharging the capacitor
and the process continues.

14

Ripple
The

capacitor does a good job of smoothing the

pulses from the rectifier into a more constant DC.
A small variation occurs in the DC because the
capacitor discharges a small amount between the
positive and negative pulses. Then it recharges.
This variation is called ripple.
The ripple can be reduced further by making the
capacitor larger.
The ripple appears to be a sawtooth shaped AC
variation riding on the DC output.
A small amount of ripple can be tolerated in some
circuits but the lower the better overall.

15

The Regulator
Most

regulators are ICs .

These are feedback control circuits that
actually monitor the output voltage to detect
variations.
If the output varies, for whatever reason, the
regulator circuit automatically adjusts the
output back to the set value.
Regulators hold the output to the desired
value.
Since ripple represents changes in the
output, the regulator also compensates for
these variations producing a near constant
DC output.
16

Power Supply Factors

Example:

17

Power Supply Factors

Example:

18

Power Supply Factors

Ripple

Factor

19

The Regulator
Ripple

Voltage and Filter Capacitor

20

Power Supply Factors

Filter

Capacitor Ripple

Example:

21

Discrete Transistor Voltage Regulators

Series

Voltage Regulator

22

The Regulator

23

Series Regulator

Example:

24

Improved Series Regulator

25

Improved Series Regulator Ctd

26

Op-Amp Series Regulator

27

Current- Limiting Circuit

28

Fold Back Limiting Circuit

29

Shunt Regulator Circuit

The unregulated input voltage

provides current to the load.
Some of the current is pulled
away by the control element.
If the load voltage tries to change
due to a change in the load
resistance, the sampling circuit
provides a feedback signal to a
comparator.
The resulting difference voltage
then provides a control signal to
vary the amount of the current
shunted away from the load to
maintain the regulated output
voltage across the load.

30

Op-Amp Shunt Regulator

31

Op-Amp Shunt Regulator

When the output voltage tries to decrease due to a

change in input voltage or load current caused by a
change in load resistance, the decrease is sensed by R1
and R2.
A feedback voltage obtained from voltage divider R1 and
R2 is applied to the op-amps non-inverting input and
compared to the Zener voltage to control the drive
current to the transistor.
The current through resistor RS is thus controlled to drop
a voltage across RS so that the output voltage is
maintained.

32

Transistor Shunt Regulator

The control element is a transistor, in parallel with the load.

While, the resistor, RS, is in series with the load.
The operation of the transistor shunt regulator is similar to
that of the transistor series regulator, except that regulation
is achieved by controlling the current through the parallel
transistor
33

Transistor Shunt Regulator

Resistor RS drops the

unregulated voltage depends on
current supplied to load RL.
Voltage across the load is set by
zener diode and transistor baseemitter voltage.
If RL decrease, a reduced drive
current to base of Q1
shunting less collector current.
Load current, IL is larger,
maintaining the regulated
voltage across load.

34

Transistor Shunt Regulator

The output voltage to the load is:

VZener
VBEvoltage
voltage across the load is set V
byo the
L VZdiode
and the transistor base-emitter voltage.
If the load resistance decreases, the load current will be
larger at a value of:
VL
The increase in load current
causes the collector current
I

L
shunted by the transistor
R is to be less:
L

The current through RS:

Vi VL
IS
RS
35

IC I S I L

Example

Determine the regulated voltage, VL and circuit currents.

(Solution: VL=8.9 V; IL=89 mA; IS=109 mA; IC=20 mA)

36

Switching Regulator

The switching regulator is a

type of regulator circuit
which its efficient transfer of
power to the load is greater
than series and shunt
regulators because the
transistor is not always
conducting.
The switching regulator
passes voltage to the load
in pulses, which then filtered
to provide a smooth dc
voltage.
37

Switching Regulator

The switching regulator is more efficient than the linear

series or shunt type.
This type regulator is ideal for high current applications
since less power is dissipated.
Voltage regulation in a switching regulator is achieved by
the on and off action limiting the amount of current flow
based on the varying line and load conditions.
With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be
achieved.

38

Switching Regulator
Step-Down Configuration
With the step-down (output is less than the input)
configuration the control element Q1 is pulsed on and off
at variable rate based on the load current.
The pulsations are filtered out by the LC filter.

39

Switching Regulator
Step-up configuration
The difference is in the placement of the inductor and
the fact that Q1 is shunt configured.
During the time when Q1 is off the VL adds to VC stepping
the voltage up by some amount.

40

Switching Regulator
Voltage-inverter configuration
output voltage is of opposite polarity of the input.
This is achieved by VL forward-biasing reverse-biased
diode during the off times producing current and
charging the capacitor for voltage production during the
off times.
With switching regulators 90% efficiencies can be
achieved.

41

IC Voltage Regulators

Regulation circuits in integrated circuit form are widely

used.
Their operation is no different but they are treated as a
single device with associated components.
These are generally three terminal devices that provide
a positive or negative output.
Some types have variable voltage outputs.
A typical 7800 series voltage regulator is used for
positive voltages.
The 7900 series are negative voltage regulators.
These voltage regulators when used with heatsinks can
safely produce current values of 1A and greater.
The capacitors act as line filtration.

42

IC Voltage Regulators

Several types of both linear (series and shunt) and

switching regulators are available in integrated circuit
(IC) form.
Single IC regulators contain the circuitry for:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

reference source
comparator amplifier
control device
overload protection

Generally, the linear regulators are three-terminal

devices that provides either positive or negative output
voltages that can be either fixed or adjustable.

43

Fixed Voltage Regulator

The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input

voltage Vi applied to one input terminal, a regulated
output dc voltage Vo from a second terminal, and the
third terminal connected to ground.
Fixed-Positive Voltage Regulator
The series 78XX regulators are the three-terminal
devices that provide a fixed positive output voltage.

44

Fixed Voltage Regulator

An unregulated input
voltage Vi is filtered by a
capacitor C1 and connected
to the ICs IN terminal.
The ICs OUT terminal
provides a regulated +12 V,
which is filtered by capacitor
C2 .
The third IC terminal is
connected to ground (GND)

45

Fixed Voltage Regulator

Positive-Voltage Regulators in the 78XX Series
IC Part

Output Voltage (V)

Minimum Vi (V)

7805

+5

+7.3

7806

+6

+8.3

7808

+8

+10.5

7810

+10

+12.5

7812

+12

+14.5

7815

+15

+17.7

7818

+18

+21.0

7824

+24

+27.1

46

Fixed Voltage Regulator

Fixed-Negative Voltage Regulator

The series 79XX regulators are the three-terminal IC
regulators that provide a fixed negative output voltage.
This series has the same features and characteristics as
the series 78XX regulators except the pin numbers are
different.

47

Fixed Voltage Regulator

Negative-Voltage Regulators in the 79XX Series
IC Part

Output Voltage (V)

Minimum Vi (V)

7905

-5

-7.3

7906

-6

-8.4

7908

-8

-10.5

7909

-9

-11.5

7912

-12

-14.6

7915

-15

-17.7

7918

-18

-20.8

7924

-24

-27.1

48

Fixed Voltage Regulator

Adjustable-Voltage Regulator
Voltage regulators are also available in circuit
configurations that allow to set the output voltage to a
desired regulated value.
The LM317 is an example of an adjustable-voltage
regulator, can be operated over the range of voltage
from 1.2 to 37 V.

49

Summary

Voltage regulators keep a constant dc output despite

input voltage or load changes.
The two basic categories of voltage regulators are linear
and switching.
The two types of linear voltage regulators are series and
shunt.
The three types of switching are step-up, step-down,
and inverting.

50

Summary

Switching regulators are more efficient than linear

making them ideal for low voltage high current
applications.
IC regulators are available with fixed positive or negative
output voltages or variable negative or positive output
voltages.
Both linear and switching type regulators are available in
IC form.
Current capacity of a voltage regulator can be increased
with an external pass transistor.

51

Op Amp Applications- Filters

Introduction
Types of Filters
Applications of filters
Filter Parameters(Poles, Decade, Octave)
Passive Filters
Active Filters response
-Butterworth
-Chebyshev Filter
-Bessel Filter
Examples

52

Introduction
Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals
within a band of frequencies while rejecting or blocking
signals of frequencies outside this band. This property of
filters is also called frequency selectivity.

Filters can be passive or active filter.

Passive filters:
filters The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC
circuits.
Active filters : The circuits that employ one or more
op-amps in the design an addition to
resistors and capacitors

53

Advantages of Active Filters over Passive

Filters
Active filters can be designed to provide required
gain, and hence no attenuation as in the case of
passive filters
No loading problem, because of high input
resistance and low output resistance of op-amp.
Active Filters are cost effective as a wide variety
of economical op-amps are available.

54

Applications

Active filters are mainly used in communication

and signal processing circuits.
They are also employed in a wide range of
applications such as entertainment, medical
electronics, etc.

55

Active Filters
There are 4 basic categories of active filters:
1. Low-pass filters
2. High-pass filters
3. Band-pass filters
4. Band-reject filters
Each of these filters can be built by using op-amp as
the active element combined with RC, RL or RLC circuit
as the passive elements.

56

 A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz

to critical frequency, fc and significantly attenuates all other
frequencies.

roll-off
rate

Actual response

Vo

Ideal response

Ideally, the response drops abruptly at the critical

frequency, fH
57

Passband of a filter is the

range of frequencies that
are allowed to pass
through the filter with
minimum attenuation
(usually defined as less
than -3 dB of attenuation).

roll-off
rate

Transition region shows

the area where the fall-off
occurs.
Stopband is the range of frequencies that have the most
attenuation.
Critical frequency,
frequency fc, (also called the cutoff frequency)
defines the end of the passband and normally specified at the
point where the response drops 3 dB (70.7%) from the
passband response.

58

Vo

At low frequencies, XC is very high and the capacitor

circuit can be considered as open circuit. Under this
condition, Vo = Vin or AV = 1 (unity).
At very high frequencies, XC is very low and the Vo is
small as compared with Vin. Hence the gain falls and
drops off gradually as the frequency is increased.
59

 The bandwidth of an ideal low-pass filter is equal to

fc:

BW f c
The critical frequency of a low-pass RC filter occurs
when
XC = R and can be calculated using the formula
below:
1

fc

2 RC

60

 A high-pass filter is a filter that significantly attenuates or

rejects all frequencies below fc and passes all frequencies
above fc.
The passband of a high-pass filter is all frequencies above
the critical frequency.

Vo

Actual response

Ideal response

Ideally, the response rises abruptly at the critical frequency,

fL

61

 The critical frequency of a high-pass RC filter occurs

when
XC = R and can be calculated using the formula
below:

1
fc
2 RC

62

 A band-pass filter passes all signals lying within a

band between a lower-frequency limit and upperfrequency limit and essentially rejects all other
frequencies that are outside this specified band.

Ideal response

Actual response

63

 The bandwidth (BW) is defined as the difference

between the upper critical frequency (fc2) and the
lower critical frequency (fc1).

BW f c 2 f c1
64

 The frequency about which the pass band is centered is

called the center frequency,
frequency fo and defined as the
geometric mean of the critical frequencies.

f o f c1 f c 2

65

 The quality factor (Q) of a band-pass filter is the

ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth.

fo
Q
BW
The higher value of Q, the narrower the bandwidth
and the better the selectivity for a given value of fo.
(Q>10) as a narrow-band or (Q<10) as a wide-band
The quality factor (Q) can also be expressed in
terms of the damping factor (DF) of the filter as :

1
Q
DF
66

Actual response

Band-stop filter is a filter

which its operation is
opposite to that of the bandpass filter because the
frequencies within the
bandwidth are rejected,
rejected and
the frequencies above fc1
and fc2 are passed.
passed
For the band-stop
filter, the bandwidth is a
band of frequencies
between the 3 dB points,
just as in the case of the
band-pass filter
response.

Ideal response

67

 There are 3 characteristics of filter response :

i)

Butterworth characteristic

ii) Chebyshev characteristic

iii) Bessel characteristic.

Comparative plots of three

types of filter response
characteristics.
Each of the characteristics is identified
by the shape of the
response
68
curve

Filter response is characterized

by
flat amplitude response in the
passband.
Provides a roll-off rate of -20
dB/decade/pole.
Filters with the Butterworth
response are normally used
when
all frequencies in the
passband
must have the same gain.
gain

69

 Filter response is
characterized
by overshoot or ripples in
the
passband.
Provides a roll-off rate
greater
than -20 dB/decade/pole.
Filters with the Chebyshev
response can be
implemented
with fewer poles and less
complex circuitry for a given
roll-off rate
70

Filter response is characterized by

a
linear characteristic,
characteristic meaning
that the
phase shift increases linearly with
frequency.
Filters with the Bessel response
are
used for filtering pulse waveforms
without distorting the shape of
waveform.

71

 The damping factor (DF) of an active filter determines which

response characteristic the filter exhibits.
This active filter consists
of an amplifier,
amplifier a negative
feedback circuit and RC
circuit.
circuit
The amplifier and
feedback are connected in a
non-inverting configuration.
configuration
DF is determined by the
negative feedback and
defined as :

R1
DF 2
R2

General diagram of active

filter

72

 The value of DF required to produce a desired response

characteristics depends on order (number of poles) of the filter.
A pole (single pole) is simply one resistor and one capacitor.
capacitor
The more poles filter has, the faster its roll-off rate.

73

One-pole (first-order) low-pass

filter.frequency,
The critical
frequency fc is determined by the values
of R and C in the frequency-selective RC circuit.
Each RC set of filter components represents a pole.
pole
Greater roll-off rates can be achieved with more
poles.
poles
74
Each pole represents a -20dB/decade
increase in roll-

 For a single-pole (first-order) filter, the critical

frequency is :

1
fc
2 RC
The above formula can be used for both low-pass and
high-pass filters.

75

 The number of poles determines the roll-off rate of the

filter. For example, a Butterworth response produces
-20dB/decade/pole.
This means that:
One-pole (first-order) filter has a roll-off of -20 dB/decade
Two-pole (second-order) filter has a roll-off of -40 dB/decade
Three-pole (third-order) filter has a roll-off of -60 dB/decade

76

 The number of filter poles can be increased by

cascading.
cascading To obtain a filter with three poles, cascade
a two-pole with one-pole filters.

Three-pole (third-order) low-pass filter.

77

Advantages of active filters over passive filters (R, L,

and C
elements only):
1. By containing the op-amp, active filters can be
designed to provide required gain, and hence no
signal attenuation as the signal passes through
the filter.
2. No loading problem,
problem due to the high input
impedance of the op-amp prevents excessive
loading of the driving source, and the low output
impedance of the op-amp prevents the filter from
being affected by the load that it is driving.
3. Easy to adjust over a wide frequency range
without altering the desired response.
78

 Figure below shows the basic Low-Pass filter circuit

At critical frequency,
Resistance = Capacitance

R Xc
1
R
c C
1
R
2f c C
So, critical frequency ;

79

1
fc
2RC

Single-pole active low-pass filter and response curve.

This filter provides a roll-off rate of -20 dB/decade
above the critical frequency.
80

 The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a

noninverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage
gain in the passband is set by the values of R1 and R2 :

Acl ( NI )

R1

1
R2

The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
fc
2RC
81

 Sallen-Key is one of the most common configurations for

a second order (two-pole) filter.
There are two low-pass
RC circuits that provide a
roll-off of -40 dB/decade
above fc (assuming a
Butterworth
characteristics).

Basic Sallen-Key low-pass filter.

82

One RC circuit consists

of RA and CA, and the
second circuit consists of
RB and CB.

 The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is :

1
fc
2 RA RB C AC B

For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the critical

frequency :

1
fc
2RC

83

 Determine critical frequency

Set the value of R1 for Butterworth response by giving

that Butterworth response for second order is 0.586

Critical frequency

1
fc
7.23kHz
2RC
Butterworth response

given
R1/R2 = 0.586

R1 0.586 R2

84

R1 586k

 A three-pole filter is required to provide a roll-off rate of

-60 dB/decade.
dB/decade This is done by cascading a two-pole
Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a single-pole low-pass filter.
filter

Cascaded low-pass filter: third-order configuration.

85

 A four-pole filter is required to provide a roll-off rate of

-80 dB/decade.
dB/decade This is done by cascading a two-pole
Sallen-Key low-pass filter and a two-pole Sallen-Key lowpass filter.

Cascaded low-pass filter: fourth-order configuration.

86

 Determine the capacitance values required to produce a

critical
frequency of 2680 Hz if all resistors in RC low pass circuit
is
1.8k
1
fc
2RC
C

1
0.033F
2f c R

CA1=CB1=CA2=CB2=0.033
f
Both stages must have the same fc. Assume equal-value of
capacitor

87

 Figure below shows the basic High-Pass filter circuit

:
At critical frequency,
Resistance = Capacitance

R Xc
1
R
c C
1
R
2f c C
So, critical frequency ;

88

1
fc
2RC

 In high-pass filters, the roles of the capacitor and resistor are

reversed in the RC circuits as shown from Figure (a). The
negative feedback circuit is the same as for the low-pass filters.
Figure (b) shows a high-pass active filter with a -20dB/decade
roll-off

Single-pole active high-pass 89

filter and response curve.

 The op-amp in single-pole filter is connected as a

noninverting amplifier with the closed-loop voltage
gain in the passband is set by the values of R1 and R2 :

Acl ( NI )

R1

1
R2

The critical frequency of the single-pole filter is :

1
fc
2RC
90

 Components RA, CA, RB, and CB form the second order

(two-pole) frequency-selective circuit.
The position of the resistors and capacitors in the
frequency-selective circuit are opposite in low pass
configuration.
There are two highpass RC circuits that
provide a roll-off of -40
dB/decade above fc

The response
characteristics can be
optimized by proper
selection of the
feedback resistors,
resistors R1
and R2.

Basic
91 Sallen-Key high-pass

 The critical frequency for the Sallen-Key filter is :

1
fc
2 RA RB C AC B

For RA = RB = R and CA = CB = C, thus the critical

frequency :

1
fc
2RC

92

 As with the low-pass filter, first- and second-order highpass filters can be cascaded to provide three or more poles
and thereby create faster roll-off rates.
A six-pole high-pass filter consisting of three Sallen-Key
two-pole stages with the roll-off rate of -120 dB/decade.
dB/decade

Sixth-order high-pass
93
filter

 Band-pass filter is formed by cascading a two-pole highpass and two pole low-pass filter.
Each of the filters shown is Sallen-Key Butterworth
configuration, so that the roll-off rate are -40dB/decade.

94

 The lower frequency fc1 of the passband is the critical

frequency of the high-pass filter.
The upper frequency fc2 of the passband is the critical
frequency of the low-pass filter.

95

 The following formulas express the three frequencies of

the band-pass filter.
f c1

1
2 RA1 RB1C A1C B1

fc2

1
2 RA 2 RB 2C A 2C B 2

f0

f c1 f c 2

If equal-value components are used in implementing

each filter,
fc

1
2RC

96

 The low-pass circuit consists

of
R1 and C1.
The high-pass circuit
consists of
R2 and C2.
The feedback paths are
through
C1 and R2.

1
Center frequency;
f0

97

R1 // R3 R2C1C2

 By making C1 = C2 =C, yields

1
f0
2C

R1 R3
R1 R2 R3

The resistor values can be found by using following

formula

Q
R1
2f o CAo

Q
R2
f oC

Q
R3
2f oC (2Q 2 Ao )

The maximum gain, Ao occurs at the center

frequency.

R2
Ao
2R1
98

 State-Variable BPF is widely used for band-pass

applications.

99

 It consists of a summing amplifier and two

integrators.
It has outputs for low-pass, high-pass, and bandpass.
The center frequency is set by the integrator RC
circuits.
The critical frequency of the integrators usually
made equal
R5 and R6 set the Q (bandwidth).

The band-pass output peaks sharply the center

frequency giving it a high Q.

100

 The Q is set by the feedback resistors R5 and R6

according to the following equations :

1 R5
Q
1
3 R6

101

 The configuration is similar to the band-pass version

BUT R3
has been moved and R4 has been added.
The BSF is opposite of BPF in102
that it blocks a specific

Measuring frequency response can be

performed with typical bench-type equipment.
It is a process of setting and measuring
frequencies both outside and inside the known
cutoff points in predetermined steps.
Use the output measurements to plot a graph.
More accurate measurements can be
performed with sweep generators along with an
oscilloscope, a spectrum analyzer, or a scalar
analyzer.
103

 The bandwidth of a low-pass filter is the

same as the upper critical frequency.
The bandwidth of a high-pass filter
extends from the lower critical
frequency up to the inherent limits of
the circuit.
The band-pass passes frequencies
between the lower critical frequency
and the upper critical frequency.
104

 A band-stop filter rejects frequencies

within the upper critical frequency and
upper critical frequency.
The Butterworth filter response is very
flat and has a roll-off rate of 20 B
The Chebyshev filter response has
ripples and overshoot in the passband
but can have roll-off rates greater than
20 dB
105

 The Bessel response exhibits a linear

phase characteristic, and filters with the
Bessel response are better for filtering
pulse waveforms.
A filter pole consists of one RC circuit.
Each pole doubles the roll-off rate.
The Q of a filter indicates a band-pass
filters selectivity. The higher the Q the
narrower the bandwidth.
The damping factor determines the filter
response characteristic.
106

Power Electronics
Introduction
Bipolar

Transistor Power Amplifiers

Classes of Amplifier

107

Introduction

Amplifiers that produce voltage amplification or current

amplification also produce power amplification

However, the term power amplifier is normally reserved

for circuits whose main function is to deliver large amounts
of power

These can be produced using FETs or bipolar transistors,

or using special purpose devices such as thyristors and
triacs

108

Bipolar Transistor Power Amplifiers

When designing a power amplifier we normally require a

low output resistance so that the circuit can deliver a high
output current

we often use an emitter-follower

this does not produce voltage gain but has a low output
resistance

in many cases the load applied to a power amplifier is not

simply resistive but also has an inductive or capacitive
element

109

Current sources and loads

when driving a reactive load we need to supply current at

some times (the output acts as a current source)
at other times we need to absorb current (the output acts as
a current sink)

110

the circuit above is a good current source but a poor

current sink (stored charge must be removed by RE)
an alternative circuit using pnp transistors (below) is a
good current sink but a poor current source

111

Classes of Amplifiers

Push-pull amplifiers

combining these circuits

can produce an
arrangement that is both
a good current source
and a good current sink
this is termed a
push-pull amplifier

112

Driving a push-pull stage

113

Distortion in push-pull amplifiers

114

Improved push-pull output stage arrangements

115

Amplifier Efficiency

Amplifier efficiency

an important consideration in the design of power

amplifiers is efficiency
Efficiency

power dissipated in the load

power absorbed from the supply

efficiency determines the power dissipated in the amplifier

itself
power dissipation is important because it determines the
amount of waste heat produced
excess

heat may require heat sinks, cooling fans, etc.

116

Classes of Amplifier

Class A

active device conducts for complete cycle of input signal

example shown here

poor efficiency
(normally less
than 25%)

low distortion

117

Classes of Amplifiers

Class B

active devices conducts

for half of the complete
cycle of input signal

example shown here

good efficiency
(up to 78%)

considerable distortion

118

Classes of Amplifiers

Class AB

active devices conducts

for more than half but
less than the complete
cycle of input signal

example shown here

(with appropriate Rbias)

efficiency depends on bias

distortion depends on bias

119

Classes of Amplifiers

Class C

active devices conducts

for less than half the
complete cycle of
input signal

example shown here

high efficiency
(approaching 100%)

gross distortion

120

Classes of Amplifiers

Class D

in class D amplifiers the active devices are switches and are

either ON or OFF

an ideal switch would dissipate no power

since

either the current or the voltage is zero

even real devices make good switches

amplifiers of this type are called switching amplifiers or

switch-mode amplifiers

efficiency is very high

121

Four-layer Devices

Although transistors make excellent switches, they have

limitations when it comes to switching high currents at high
voltages

In such situations we often use devices that are specifically

designed for such applications

These are four-layer devices

these are not transistors, but have a great deal in common

with bipolar transistors

122

The thyristor

a four-layer
device with a
pnpn structure
three terminals:
anode, cathode
and gate
gate is the
control input

123

Thyristor operation

construction
resembles two
interconnected
bipolar transistors
turning on T2
holds on T1
device then
conducts until
the current goes
to zero

124

Use of a thyristor in
AC power control

once triggered the device

conducts for the remainder
of the half cycle
varying firing time
determines output power
allows control from 0-50%
of full power

125

Full-wave power
control using thyristors

full-wave control
required two devices
allows control from
0-100% of full power
requires two gate
drive circuits
opto-isolation often
used to insulate
circuits from AC supply

126

The triac

resembles a bidirectional
thyristor
allows full-wave control
using a single device
often used with a
bidirectional trigger
diode (a diac) to produce
the necessary drive pulses
this breaks down at a
particular voltage and fires the triac

127

A simple lamp-dimmer using a triac

128

Key Points

Power amplifiers are designed to deliver large amounts of

power to their load
Bipolar circuits often use an emitter follower circuit
Many power amplifiers use a push-pull arrangement
The efficiency of an amplifier is greatly affected by its class
While transistors make excellent switches, in high power
applications we often use special-purpose devices such as
thyristors or triacs
A transformer, a rectifier and a capacitor can be used to form
a simple unregulated supply
A more constant output voltage can be produced by adding a
regulator. This can use linear or switching techniques
129

Harmonic Distortion

130

Harmonic Distortion

131

Harmonic Distortion

132

Harmonic Distortion Example

133

Harmonic Distortion

134

Harmonic Distortion

135

Harmonic Distortion

136

Harmonic Distortion

137

Heat Sinking

138

Heat Sinking

139

Heat Sinking

140

Heat Sinking

141

Heat Sinking -Example

142

Harmonic Distortion

143

Positive Feedback, Oscillators and Stability

Introduction
Oscillators
Stability

144

Introduction

Earlier we looked at feedback in general terms

in particular we concentrated on negative feedback

In this chapter we will consider positive feedback

this is used in both analogue and digital circuits

it is used in the production of oscillators

positive feedback can occur unintentionally within circuits

when it has implications for stability

145

Oscillators

Earlier we looked at a generalised feedback system

We also derived the closed-loop gain G of this

G

A
(1 AB )

146

Looking at the expression

we note that when AB A= -1, the gain is infinite

AB )
this represents the(1condition
for oscillation

The requirements for oscillation are described by the

Baukhausen criterion:
1.
2.

The magnitude of the loop gain AB must be 1

The phase shift of the loop gain AB must be 180,
or 180 plus an integer multiple of 360

147

RC or phase-shift oscillator

one way of producing a phase shift of 180 is to use

an RC ladder network

this gives a phase shift of 180 when

at this frequency the gain of the network is

1
2CR 6
vo
1

vi
29

148

Therefore the complete oscillator is

149

Wien-bridge oscillator

uses a Wien-bridge network

this produces a phase-shift
of 0 at a single frequency,
and is used with an inverting
amplifier
the selected frequency is

when the gain is 1/3

1
2CR

150

A complete oscillator might look like

151

Amplitude stabilisation

in both the oscillators above, the loop gain is set by

component values
in practice the gain of the active components is very variable
if

the gain of the circuit is too high it will saturate

if the gain of the circuit is too low the oscillation will die

real circuits need some means of stabilising the magnitude of

the oscillation to cope with variability in the gain of the circuit
see Section 24.2.3 in the course text for more discussion of
this topic

152

Digital oscillators

many examples, for example the relaxation oscillator

153

Crystal oscillators

frequency stability is determined by the ability of the circuit to

select a particular frequency
in tuned circuits this is described by the quality factor, Q
piezoelectric crystals act like resonant circuits with a very high
Q as high as 100,000

154

A typical crystal oscillator

155

Stability

Earlier we used a general expression for the gain of a

feedback network
G

A
(1 AB )

So far we have assumed that A and B are real gains

the gain of a real amplifier has not only a magnitude, but also
a phase angle

a phase shift of 180 represents an inversion and so the gain

changes polarity

this can turn negative feedback into positive feedback

156

The gain of all real amplifiers falls at high frequencies

and this also produces a phase shift
All multi-stage amplifiers will produce 180 of phase shift
at some frequency
To ensure stability we must ensure that the Baukhausen
conditions for oscillation are not met

to guarantee this we must ensure that the gain falls below

unity before the phase shift reaches 180

157

Gain and
phase margins

these are a measure

of the stability of a
circuit

158

Unintended feedback

stability can also be affected by unintended feedback

within a circuit
this might be caused by stray capacitance or
stray inductance
if these produce positive feedback they can cause
instability
a severe problem in high-frequency applications
must be tackled by careful design

159

Key Points

Positive feedback is used in analogue and digital systems

A primary use is in the production of oscillators
The requirement for oscillation is that the loop gain AB must
have a magnitude of 1, and a phase shift of 180 (or 180
plus some integer multiple of 360)
This can be achieved using a circuit that produces a phase
shift of 180 together with a non-inverting amplifier
Alternatively, it can be achieved using a circuit that produces
a phase shift of 0 with an inverting amplifier
For good frequency stability we often use crystals
Care must be taken to ensure the stability of all feedback
systems
160

Types of Oscillator

Wien-bridge Oscillator
Phase Shift Oscillator
Twin-T Oscillator
Crystal-control Oscillator
Colpitts Oscillator
Clapp Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Armstrong Oscillator

161

161

RC Phase Shift Oscillator

162

162

163

163

Phase Shift
The displacement of a waveform in time. For
example, if a waveform is displaced by a
complete waveform. it is described as having a
phase-shift of 360. If it is displaced by half a
wavelength (i.e. 180) one wave will peak where
the other is in a trough state and complete
cancellation will result. If they are at any other
angle of phase-shift, partial cancellation will
result.

164

164

Phase shift Oscillator

A phase shift oscillator is a simple sine wave electronic

oscillator. It contains an inverting amplifier, and a
feedback filter which 'shifts' the phase by 180 degrees at
the oscillation frequency.

165

165

RC Phase shift

166

166

Cont.

The most common way of achieving this kind of filter is

using 3 cascaded resistor-capacitor filters, at the
oscillation frequency each filter produces a phase shift of
60 degrees and the whole filter circuit produces a phase
shift of 180 degrees. Thus the total phase shift produced
by the three RC networks is 180. Therefore at the
specific frequency fo the total phase shift from the base
of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base
is 360

167

167

Cont.

The mathematics for calculating the oscillation frequency and

oscillation criteria for this circuit are surprisingly complex, due to
each R-C stage loading the previous ones. The calculations are
greatly simplified by setting all the resistors (except the -ve
feedback resistor) and all the capacitors to the same values. In the
diagram, if R1 = R2 = R3 = R, and C1 = C2 = C3 = C, then:

oscillation criteria is:

168

168

Hartley oscillator
The Hartley oscillator was invented by Ralph. V.L.Hartley
while he was working for the Research Laboratory of the
Western Electric Company. Hartley invented the design
while
overseeing
Bell
System's
transatlantic
radiotelephone tests of 1915. who filed for a patent on
June 1, 1915 and was awarded patent number 1,356,763
on October 26, 1920.

169

169

Cont.
The Hartley oscillator is an LC electronic oscillator that
derives its feedback from a tapped coil in parallel with a
capacitor (the tank circuit). Although there is no
requirement for there to be mutual coupling between the
two coil segments, the circuit is usually implemented as
such. A Hartley oscillator is essentially any configuration
that uses a pair of series-connected coils and a single
capacitor.

170

170

Cont.
Hartley oscillators may be series or shunt fed. A Hartley
oscillator is made up of the following:
Two inductors which need not be mutual (may be a twowinding transformer)
One tuning capacitor

171

171

Advantages of the Hartley oscillator include:

The frequency is varied using a variable capacitor
The output amplitude remains constant over the frequency
range.
The feedback ratio of the tapped inductor remains
constant .
Disadvantages include:
Harmonic-rich content of the output.
It is not suitable for a pure sine wave.
The Hartley oscillator was extensively used on all broadcast
bands including the FM 88-108MHz band.

172

172

Clapp Oscillator

The Clapp oscillator is one of several types of electronic

oscillator constructed from a transistor (or vacuum tube)
and a positive feedback network. It was invented by
James K. Clapp in 1948.

173

173

Cont.

the network is comprised of a single inductor and three

capacitors, with two capacitors (C1 and C2) forming a
voltage divider that determines the amount of feedback
voltage applied to the transistor input.

174

174

The Clapp oscillator is a Colpitts oscillator with an

additional capacitor placed in series with the inductor. The
oscillation frequency in hertz (cycles per second) for the
circuit in the figure, which uses a field-effect transistor
(FET), is

175

175

Reason for using Clapp Oscillator

A Clapp circuit is often preferred over a Colpitts circuit

for constructing a variable frequency oscillator (VFO). In
a Colpitts VFO, the voltage divider contains the variable
capacitor (either C1 or C2). This causes the feedback
voltage to be variable as well, sometimes making the
Colpitts circuit less likely to achieve oscillation over a
portion of the desired frequency range. This problem is
avoided in the Clapp circuit by using fixed capacitors in
the voltage divider and a variable capacitor (C0) in
series with the inductor.

176

176

Harmonic Distortion

177