Electronics Design Workshop

Chapter 4 Power sources and power

supply regulator design

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4.1 Introduction

Power sources refer to the means by which electrical energy is generated or stored,
such as batteries, generators, or solar panels. Power supply regulators, on the other
hand, are devices that control the voltage and current supplied by a power source to
ensure that it is stable and consistent. The design of a power supply regulator depends
on the specific requirements of the application, but typically includes a control circuit,
a reference circuit, and an error amplifier. The control circuit sets the desired output
voltage, the reference circuit generates a stable reference voltage, and the error
amplifier compares the output voltage to the reference voltage and adjusts it as
needed. The choice of components, such as transistors and resistors, will also depend
on the specific requirements of the application.

4.2 Linear and switching power supply

Linear power supplies and switching power supplies are two different types of power
supply regulators.
A linear power supply

A typical linear power supply system consists of several components that work
together to provide a regulated DC voltage for powering a load. The first component,
the transformer, steps down the input voltage to a lower voltage level that can be
rectified and regulated. Assuming a 10:1 turns ratio, the output voltage will be 22V AC.
The rectifier, in this case, a full wave rectifier, converts the AC voltage into DC voltage
by rectifying both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC waveform using two
diodes such as 1N4007. The rectified DC voltage, however, has significant ripple that
needs to be smoothed out. This is where the capacitor comes into play, which
smoothens the rectified DC voltage to provide a ripple voltage that is less than 1% of
the output voltage. In this case, a capacitor with a capacitance of at least 1000uF is
required.
The capacitor is connected across the output of the rectifier to smooth out the ripple.
During the positive half-cycle of the rectified voltage, the capacitor charges up to the

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peak voltage. During the negative half-cycle, the capacitor discharges through the load
resistance. This results in a smoothed DC voltage across the load resistance.

The capacitor undergoes charging and discharging, resulting in the presence of an AC

component, which is commonly referred to as ripple voltage (Vripple). The magnitude
of the ripple voltage worsens as the current drawn from the capacitor increases, and
it's essential to specify this. To achieve a 10% ripple voltage (say 12 V power supply),
i.e., 1.2 V peak-to-peak (Vpp), the capacitance can be calculated using the formula
provided below:
C = I_load / (4 x f x V_ripple)
where f is the frequency of the mains, either 50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the region.
I_load is the max current which can be drawn from the load.

Finally, the load resistance, which in this case is a 1kohm device, is the circuit or device
that is being powered by the power supply. By working together, these components
form a complete power supply system that can provide a DC voltage to power the
load.
Typical components and values of the linear power supply are:
• Transformer: 220V AC to 22V AC, 10:1 turns ratio
• Diodes: 2 x 1N4007
• Capacitor: 1000uF or greater
• Load resistance: 1kohm

Switching power supply

A switching power supply is a type of power supply that uses a high-frequency
switching circuit to convert the input voltage into a regulated output voltage. The main
components of a typical switching power supply include:

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1. Input voltage source: The input voltage source can be AC or DC, depending on
the type of power supply. The input voltage is first rectified and filtered to
obtain a DC voltage.
2. High Frequency Converter: The power switching device is used to switch the
input voltage on and off at high frequencies (typically between 20 kHz to 1
MHz). The most common type of power-switching device is a MOSFET (metal-
oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor).

3. Output rectifier and filter: The output rectifier and filter are used to convert the
high-frequency AC voltage into a regulated DC voltage. The output filter is
typically a capacitor that smooths out the ripple in the output voltage.
4. Control circuit: The control circuit is used to regulate the output voltage and
maintain a constant output voltage despite changes in the input voltage and
load conditions. The control circuit uses feedback from the output voltage to
adjust the switching frequency and duty cycle of the power switching device.

4.3 Transformerless power supply

A transformerless power supply (TPL) is an electronic power supply that is used to

convert AC voltage to DC voltage without the use of a transformer. The TPL circuit uses
a combination of capacitors and resistors to create a voltage divider circuit that steps
down the AC voltage and filters out any AC noise or ripple.

1. Capacitor C1(225J 400V): This is the most important component in the circuit
as it reduces the high current from the mains to a lower level suitable for the
output load. The capacitor acts as a voltage divider circuit, stepping down the
AC voltage and filtering out any AC noise or ripple. Every microFarad from this
capacitor can provide around 50 mA current to the output load. For example,
a 2uF capacitor will provide 100 mA.

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2. Resistor R1 (1 M 0.25W) : This component provides a discharge path for the

high voltage capacitor C1 when the circuit is unplugged from the mains input.
This prevents the risk of electric shock from the stored potential in C1.

3. Diodes D1-D4 (IN4007): These work as a bridge rectifier, converting the low
current AC from capacitor C1 into a low current DC. The capacitor restricts the
current to 50 mA, but not the voltage. The DC output at the bridge is the peak
value of the 220 V AC, which is approximately 310 V DC.

4. Zener Diode: The 310V DC output may be too high for low voltage devices, so
a zener diode is used to shunt the 310V DC into the desired lower value, such
as 12 V, 5 V, 24 V etc., depending on the load specifications.

5. Resistor R2 (100 ohm 2W): This component acts as a current limiting resistor
to prevent the high current from entering the circuit during the instantaneous
power switch ON periods. Capacitor C1 simply acts like a short circuit for a few
milliseconds during this period, allowing the full AC 220 V high current to
enter the circuit, which may destroy the vulnerable DC load at the output. R2
prevents this by limiting the current. An NTC can also be used instead of R2.

6. Capacitor C2 (470 micro F 25 V): This is the filter capacitor which smoothens
the 100 Hz ripples from the rectified bridge to a cleaner DC. A 470uF 25V
capacitor is shown in the diagram,.

4.4 Zener regulator

A Zener regulator is a type of voltage regulator that uses a Zener diode to maintain a
constant voltage at its output. The Zener diode is a special type of diode that operates
in the reverse breakdown region, where the voltage across the diode is constant

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regardless of the current flowing through it. The voltage across the Zener diode is
known as the Zener voltage, and it is the reference voltage for the regulator.

(a)

(b)
A 1.5 V Zener regulated power supply.

In the circuit described, a constant regulated 1.5V DC supply is obtained from an

unregulated DC supply. The unregulated DC supply is obtained by reducing the 230V
mains supply to 6V AC using a stepdown transformer. The 6V AC is then converted
into 6V DC using a bridge rectifier module or four 1N4007 diodes in a bridge form.
The resulting DC supply is filtered using capacitor C1 to remove any ripple or noise.
The presence of input DC to the Zener regulator circuit is indicated by LED1, which is
connected in series with a 1N4007 diode that acts as a reverse supply protection
device. The Zener diode is connected in parallel to the output of the DC supply, with
capacitor C2 acting as a high-frequency ripple filter.
The Zener diode used in this circuit has a breakdown voltage of 1.5V, which means
that it will start conducting when the input DC voltage reaches 1.5V. When the Zener
diode starts conducting, it provides a stable output voltage of 1.5V, regardless of the
input voltage. This output voltage is regulated by the Zener diode and remains
constant as long as the input voltage remains within a certain range.

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4.5 op-amp based regulator

An op-amp based regulator is a type of voltage regulator that uses an operational

amplifier (OPAMP) to control the output voltage. The op-amp is an electronic circuit
that amplifies the difference between two input voltages and produces an output
voltage that is proportional to the input voltage difference.
It provides a stable dc voltage independent of load current ,temperature and ac line
voltage variations.

The circuit consists of the following four parts:

(a)Reference voltage circuit
(b)Error amplifier
(c)Series pass Transistor
(d)Feedback network

The Fig. is showing an OPAMP Voltage Regulator circuit with a series-pass transistor.
The input voltage source VIN is connected to the input of the circuit, and the output
voltage is regulated by the series-pass transistor Q. The reference voltage is set by the
zener diode D and resistor R1 at node 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 . The output voltage is sensed by the
OPAMP (error detector), which compares it to the reference voltage and adjusts the
base current of Q to maintain a constant output voltage.
When the output voltage is lower than the reference voltage, the OPAMP output
increases, which increases the base current of Q, causing it to conduct more current
and deliver more voltage to the load. This increases the output voltage, which is sensed
by the OPAMP and fed back to reduce the base current of Q. When the output voltage
reaches the reference voltage, the OPAMP output stabilizes and maintains a constant
output voltage.

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Resistors R1 and R3 form a voltage divider that feeds a fraction of the regulator output
voltage Vo to the negative input V- of the OPAMP. The OPAMP compares V- to the
reference voltage 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 and adjusts the drive to Q to maintain V- at the same level as
𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 .
When V- is equal to 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 , the output voltage can be related to the zener voltage
through the R2-R3 divider by:
𝑅3
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑅𝐸𝐹 × (1 + )
𝑅2
Assuming a zener voltage of 3V, R3 of 10k and R2 of 5k, the output voltage should be:
10𝑘
𝑉𝑜 = 3𝑉 × (1 + ) = 9𝑉
5𝑘

4.6 723 IC regulator

The 723 Voltage Regulator IC is one of the most popular integrated circuit (IC) voltage
regulators. Its functional diagram consists of a voltage reference source at Pin 6, an
error amplifier with its inverting input at Pin 4 and non-inverting input at Pin 5, a series
pass transistor at Pins 10 and 11, and a current limiting transistor at Pins 2 and 3.

This voltage regulator can function as both a positive and negative voltage regulator,
and its output voltage can range from 2 V to 37 V. It can handle output current levels
of up to 150 mA, and its maximum supply voltage is 40 V. The line and load regulations
are each specified as 0.01%, which means that the output voltage will stay within 0.01%
of its set value even when there are changes in the input voltage or output current.

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Design a positive voltage regulator with an IC 723

To desired output voltage range, variations in the values of resistors R1 and R2 are
made using a potentiometer. A Darlington connection is also used with transistor Q1
to handle large load currents. The broken lines in the image indicate the internal
connections for current limiting. Additionally, the IC allows for foldback current
limiting.
If a regulator output voltage less than the 7V reference level is needed, a voltage
divider can be employed across the reference source, and the potentially divided
reference voltage can be connected to terminal 5.
The voltage at the NI terminal of the error amplifier is determined by the R1-R2 divider
network and is equal to 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅2/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2). This voltage difference between the NI
terminal and the INV terminal (Vo) is amplified by the error amplifier, which in turn
drives the pass transistor Q1 to minimize the difference. Q1 acts as an emitter follower,
and as such Vo is equal to 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑅2/(𝑅1 + 𝑅2).
If the output voltage goes low, the INV terminal voltage also decreases, leading to a
more positive output from the error amplifier, which drives Q1 more into conduction.
This allows more current to flow into the load, increasing the voltage across it and
compensating for the initial drop in voltage.
Similarly, an increase in load voltage is also regulated. It's worth noting that Vref is set
to 7.15V, and Vo is always less than 7V, making this a low voltage regulator.

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4.7 3-terminal IC regulators, Fixed voltage series regulators-

78XX,79XX

3-terminal IC regulators, such as the fixed voltage series regulators 78XX and 79XX,
provide a range of benefits, including low cost, high reliability, reduced size, ease of
use, and excellent performance. These units integrate a reference source, comparator,
control unit, and overload protection circuitry into a single IC.
The regulators feature three main pins: an unregulated input voltage pin (pin 1), a
regulated output voltage pin (pin 3), and a ground pin (pin 2). They are available in
two package types: plastic packages (TO-220 type) and metal packages (TO-3 type).

78XX Series:
The 78XX series consists of 3-terminal, positive fixed voltage regulators. These
regulators offer seven different output voltage options, including 5V, 6V, 8V, 12V, 15V,
18V, and 24V. The last two digits in the part number indicate the output voltage, so
for example, the 7815 represents a regulator with an output voltage of 15V.
Example of 7805 regulated power supply:

The figure displays a schematic diagram of a regulated 5V DC power supply that

uses an IC (Integrated Circuit) 7805. The IC 7805 is a voltage regulator that
regulates the voltage output to a fixed 5 volts.
The schematic diagram includes two capacitors - an input capacitor (C1) (10𝜇𝐹)
and an output capacitor (C2) (0.1 𝜇𝐹) . The input capacitor (C1) is placed between
the input voltage source and the input pin (1) of the IC 7805. This capacitor has a
capacitance of 10μF and is used to cancel the inductive effects that may occur due
to long distribution leads.
When the input voltage source is turned on, it may experience voltage spikes and
fluctuations due to the inductance in the distribution leads. The input capacitor (C1)

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helps to smooth out these voltage spikes and ensure that a stable input voltage is
provided to the IC 7805.
The output capacitor (C2) is placed between the output pin of IC 7805 and the
ground. This capacitor has a capacitance of 0.1μF and is used to improve the
transient response of the regulator. Transient response refers to the ability of the
regulator to respond quickly to sudden changes in the load current.
When there is a sudden change in the load current, there may be a brief delay
before the IC 7805 adjusts the output voltage to the new load condition. This delay
can cause voltage fluctuations, which may affect the performance of the circuit. The
output capacitor (C2) helps to reduce these voltage fluctuations and ensures that
the output voltage remains stable even during sudden changes in the load current.
79XX Series:
• 3 terminal,negative fixed voltage regulators.
• Two extra voltage options of -2V and -5.2V
Examples of 3-terminal linear regulator ICs include the 7805, 7812, LM317, LM7805,
LM7812 and LM79XX. Examples of switching regulator ICs include LM2675, LM2678
and LM2679.
Characteristics of 3 terminal IC regulators:
In technical terms, Vo refers to the regulated output voltage that is set at a specific
value by the manufacturer. The unregulated input voltage, Vin, must be equal to or
greater than |Vo|+2, which means that Vin must be at least 2 volts higher than the
regulated output voltage. For instance, if Vo is set at 5 volts, then Vin must be at least
7 volts.
The IC (Integrated Circuit) has a built-in temperature sensor that activates thermal
shutdown when the IC becomes too hot, typically at a temperature between 125°C and
150°C. During thermal shutdown, the output current of the IC decreases until the IC is
sufficiently cooled.
The load current, Io(max), can range from 0 to the maximum rated output current. The
IC usually comes with a heat sink to ensure that the rated maximum output current is
met; otherwise, the IC may not deliver the rated maximum output current.

4.8 LDO and micropower regulators

LDO and micropower regulators are types of voltage regulators that are designed to
provide a stable output voltage while consuming very low power.
LDO stands for "low-dropout" regulator. They are linear regulators that have a very
low dropout voltage, which means that the input voltage can be very close to the
output voltage. This makes them ideal for use in applications where the input voltage
is close to the desired output voltage and where low power consumption is important.

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LDO regulators are available in fixed and adjustable versions, and they are widely used
in portable electronic devices, battery-powered devices, and other low-power
applications.

The LT3010 is a voltage regulator that can be used in a variety of applications. Figure
shows a typical application where the only external components required are input
and output bypass capacitors.
The LT3010 has internal frequency compensation that helps stabilize the output for a
wide range of capacitors.
One of the great features of the LT3010 is that it does not require external protection
diodes. If the input voltage reverses due to a backwards battery or fault on the line, no
current flows into the device and no negative voltage is seen at the load.
The LT3010 is also suitable for dual supply applications where the regulator load is
returned to a negative supply. The output can be pulled below ground by several volts
while still allowing the device to start and operate.
Finally, the LT3010 provides current limiting and thermal limiting features. These
features help protect the device from damage due to excessive current or temperature.

4.9 Buck, Boost and Buck-boost switching regulators

Buck, Boost, and Buck-boost are types of switching voltage regulators that are
designed to convert a voltage from one level to another level.
Let's start with Buck regulators. Buck regulators are a type of switching voltage
regulator that reduce the input voltage to a lower output voltage. They work by
switching the input voltage on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting
pulses to charge an inductor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of
the switch and the inductor value. Buck regulators are typically used to convert a higher
voltage to a lower voltage.
Next, we have Boost regulators. Boost regulators are a type of switching voltage
regulator that increase the input voltage to a higher output voltage. They work by
switching the input voltage on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting

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pulses to charge a capacitor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of the
switch and the capacitor value. Boost regulators are typically used to convert a lower
voltage to a higher voltage.
Lastly, we have Buck-boost regulators, which can both step-up and step-down the
input voltage to a different output voltage. They work by switching the input voltage
on and off at a high frequency and using the resulting pulses to charge an inductor or
capacitor. The output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of the switch and the
inductor or capacitor value. Buck-boost regulators can be used to convert a higher
voltage to a lower voltage or a lower voltage to a higher voltage. They are often used
in portable electronic devices and other applications where the input voltage may vary.

4.10 Short circuit and over-voltage protection

Short circuit and over-voltage protection are important safety features that are
designed to protect electronic devices and systems from damage caused by abnormal
electrical conditions.

A crowbar circuit is a low-cost and efficient way to protect against over-voltage shown
in Figure. It's usually placed between the regulated output and the circuit being
protected. The series regulating transistor (TR1) controls the output, while the crowbar
steps in to prevent damage when the voltage exceeds a preset level. This simple circuit
only requires a few basic components:
1. A silicon controlled rectifier (SCR),
2. Zener diode,
3. A resistor, and
4. A Capacitor.

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During normal operation, the Zener diode (ZD1) is inactive, but once the voltage
exceeds the Zener breakdown voltage, it begins conducting and triggers the SCR
(SCR1). The SCR then creates a short circuit, sending all the current to the ground and
opening the fuse. To ensure the circuit functions correctly, the Zener diode must be
chosen slightly above the output voltage, and the SCR firing voltage must be well
above the power supply's output voltage to avoid false triggers. Although this circuit
is effective, it does have some limitations, such as the non-adjustable Zener diode and
a tolerance of only 5%.

4.11 Wireless power supply

Wireless power supply is a technology that enables the transfer of electrical energy
from a power source to a device without the use of physical connections such as wires
or cables. This is achieved by using electromagnetic waves to transfer energy from the
power source to the device.
One of the most common forms of wireless power supply is inductive charging. This
uses electromagnetic induction to transfer energy from the power source to the device.
Inductive charging works by creating an electromagnetic field between a transmitter
coil in the power source and a receiver coil in the device. When the device is placed
within this electromagnetic field, electrical energy is induced into the receiver coil,
which is then used to charge the device's battery. This is the technology used in many
wireless charging pads for smartphones and other devices.
Another form of wireless power supply is resonant inductive coupling. This uses a
resonant circuit to transfer energy between the power source and the device. The
power source and the device each have a resonant coil, and the energy is transferred
between the two coils when they are tuned to the same resonant frequency. This
method can transfer power over a larger distance than inductive charging.
A third type of wireless power supply is based on radio frequency (RF) energy transfer.
RF energy transfer uses radio frequency waves to transfer energy from the power
source to the device. The power source generates a high frequency electromagnetic
field, and the device is designed to pick up this energy and convert it into electrical
energy to charge the device's battery.
Wireless power supply technology is still in its infancy, but it has the potential to
revolutionize the way we power our devices. This technology is expected to be widely
adopted in the future, especially in applications such as electric vehicles and the
Internet of Things (IoT) devices.
Wireless power supply is a technology that enables the transfer of electrical energy
from a power source to a device without the use of physical connections such as wires
or cables. The most common forms of wireless power supply are inductive charging,
resonant inductive coupling and RF energy transfer. Wireless power supply technology

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is expected to be widely adopted in the future, and has the potential to revolutionize
the way we power our devices.

4.12 USB Power Delivery (USB PD)

USB Power Delivery (USB-PD) is a power management specification that allows USB
devices to be charged more quickly and efficiently. It is an extension of the USB
charging standard and allows for higher power charging up to 100 watts at 20 volts.
This allows USB-PD compliant devices to charge faster and more efficiently than
devices that only support standard USB charging.
One of the key features of USB-PD is its ability to negotiate power delivery between
the device and the power source. This allows the device to request a specific amount
of power and the power source to deliver that power. This negotiation process can
occur over the USB data lines and can be used to determine the maximum power that
the device can handle, and to ensure that the device is not damaged by receiving too
much power.
Another feature of USB-PD is its ability to operate in multiple power profiles. This
allows devices to switch between different power levels depending on their power
requirements. For example, a device may use a lower power profile when it is in
standby mode, and a higher power profile when it is in use. This helps to conserve
energy and prolong battery life.
USB-PD is widely supported in modern smartphones, laptops, and other devices and
it's becoming the norm for charging larger devices like laptops and tablets. USB-PD
chargers are widely available and are compatible with a wide range of devices.
USB Power Delivery (USB-PD) is a power management specification that allows USB
devices to be charged more quickly and efficiently than standard USB charging. It
allows for higher power charging up to 100 watts at 20 volts and allows for negotiation
of power delivery between the device and the power source. USB-PD also allows
devices to switch between different power levels depending on their power
requirements, thus conserving energy and prolonging battery life. It's widely
supported and becoming the norm for charging larger devices.

4.13 Battery types and characteristics

There are several different types of batteries, each with their own unique characteristics
and applications. Some of the most common types of batteries include:
1. Lithium-ion batteries: These are rechargeable batteries that are widely used in
portable devices such as smartphones and laptops. They have a high energy
density and a long lifespan, but can be expensive.
2. Nickel-cadmium batteries: These are also rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in portable devices. They are relatively inexpensive and have a good
cycle life, but they can be affected by a phenomenon known as "memory effect,"

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where the battery's capacity is reduced if it is not fully discharged before

recharging.
3. Lead-acid batteries: These are widely used in automobiles and other vehicles.
They are relatively inexpensive and have a long lifespan, but they are heavy and
can be affected by sulfation, a process that reduces the battery's capacity over
time.
4. Alkaline batteries: These are non-rechargeable batteries that are widely used
in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive and have a long shelf life,
but they cannot be recharged and must be replaced when they are depleted.
5. Lithium primary batteries: These are non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in portable devices. They have a high energy density, a long shelf
life and are lightweight, but they are more expensive than alkaline batteries.
6. Zinc-carbon batteries: These are also non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive, but have a
shorter shelf life and lower energy density than alkaline batteries.
7. Zinc-carbon batteries: These are also non-rechargeable batteries that are
widely used in household devices. They are relatively inexpensive, but have a
shorter shelf life and lower energy density than alkaline batteries.
8. Nickel-metal Hydride batteries : These are rechargeable batteries that are
used in portable devices and electric vehicles. They have a high energy density,
a long lifespan and relatively inexpensive but they can suffer from memory
effect if not fully discharged before recharging.
Each type of battery has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, and it's
important to choose the right type of battery for the specific application.

4.14 Battery charging for lead-acid and lithium type batteries.

Lead-acid batteries, the most common type of batteries used in automobiles and
other vehicles, require a specific charging process to ensure optimal performance and
prolong their lifespan. The process of charging a lead-acid battery involves several
stages:
1. Bulk charging: This is the initial stage of charging where the battery is charged
at a high rate until it reaches around 80% of its capacity. This stage typically
takes the longest and can take several hours.
2. Absorption charging: This is the second stage of charging, where the battery
is charged at a lower rate to bring the charge level to around 90-95%. During
this stage, the voltage is held at a constant level and the current gradually
decreases.

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3. Float charging: This is the final stage of charging where the battery is held at
a constant voltage, typically around 13.8 volts, to maintain its charge level. This
stage is used to keep the battery fully charged when it is not in use.
4. Equalizing charge: Periodically, a lead-acid battery should be given an
equalizing charge. This is a special type of charge that is applied to all the cells
in the battery to balance the charge in each cell. This helps to prevent the
formation of sulfation and prolongs the battery's lifespan.
It's important to note that overcharging lead-acid batteries can cause damage to the
battery, so it's important to use a charger specifically designed for lead-acid batteries
and to follow the manufacturer's instructions.
It's also important to note that lead-acid batteries should not be stored in a discharged
state as this can damage the battery and reduce its lifespan. If a lead-acid battery will
be stored for an extended period of time, it should be charged to around 50% before
being stored in a cool and dry place.
charging a lead-acid battery involves several stages: bulk charging, absorption
charging, float charging and equalizing charge. It's important to use a charger
specifically designed for lead-acid batteries and to follow the manufacturer's
instructions to ensure optimal performance and prolong the battery's lifespan. It's also
important to store lead-acid batteries properly to prevent damage and reduce their
lifespan.

Lithium-ion batteries, the most common type of rechargeable battery, should be

charged using a constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charging method. This
involves charging the battery with a constant current until it reaches a certain voltage
(typically around 4.2V per cell), at which point the charger switches to a constant
voltage and gradually reduces the current until the battery is fully charged. It is also
recommended to avoid charging lithium-ion batteries to full capacity and instead
charge them to around 80-90% to prolong their lifespan. Overheating, overcharging,
and deep discharging should be avoided to prevent damage to the battery.

Exercise:

1. What is the difference between an AC and a DC power source? Explain the

function of a rectifier circuit in converting AC to DC power.
2. Compare and contrast linear and switching power supplies. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each type of power supply, and what factors
determine which type is most appropriate for a particular application?

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3. What is a transformer-less power supply, and what are some of its advantages
and disadvantages? How does a capacitive dropper circuit work, and what are
some of the key design considerations for this type of power supply?
4. Explain the principle of operation of a Zener regulator and an op-amp based
regulator. What are the key advantages and disadvantages of each type of
regulator, and under what conditions would you choose one over the other?
5. Describe the function of the 723 IC regulator and the different types of 3-
terminal IC regulators. What are some of the key features and specifications to
consider when selecting an IC regulator for a particular application?
6. What are LDO and micropower regulators, and what are some of their key
applications? How do they differ from other types of regulators, and what are
some of the key design considerations when using these types of regulators?
7. Compare and contrast Buck, Boost, and Buck-boost switching regulators. What
are the advantages and disadvantages of each type of regulator, and under
what conditions would you choose one over the other?
8. What is short circuit protection, and why is it important in power supply design?
What is over-voltage protection, and how is it implemented in power supply
circuits?
9. Explain the principles of wireless power supply and USB-PD. What are some of
the key design considerations for implementing these types of power supplies,
and what are some of the challenges that need to be addressed when using
wireless power or USB-PD?
10. Compare and contrast the characteristics of lead-acid and lithium type
batteries. What are the key factors to consider when selecting a battery for a
particular application? How do you design a battery charging circuit for each
type of battery, and what are some of the key considerations when charging
batteries?

Satya P. Singh