By

Khairun Nisa, dr

HOMEOSTASIS
The nervous system, as one of the bodystwo
major regulatory systems, regulates many
body activities aimed at maintaining a
stable internal flui environtment

The Nervous System

The CNS consists of the brain and

spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system
consists of cranial nerves, which
arise from the brain, and spinal
nerves, which arise from the
spinal cord.
The nerves, which are shown cut
in the illustration, actually extend
throughout the body

Specific Instructional Objective

After attending Physiological Discussion of Nervous
System, Students Would be able to Illustrate the Major
Normal Function of Nervous System, Rightly

Major Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input
Sensory receptors monitor numerous external and internal
stimuli: touch, temperature, taste, smell, sound, blood
pressure, pH of body fluids, and body position
2. Integration
The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for
processing sensory input and initiating responses. The input
may produce and immediate response, may be stored as
memory or may be ignored

Major Functions of the Nervous System

3. Homeostasis
The trillions (1018)of cells in the human body do not function
independently of each other but must work together to
maintain homeostasis
4. Mental activity
The brain is the central of mental activities, including
consciousness, thinking, memory, and emotions
5. Control muscle and glands
Skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by
the nervous system, and the nervous system controls the
major movements of the body through the control of skeletal
muscles. The nervous system control the secretion from
many glands

Division of the Nervous System

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Central Nervous System
Brain

Peripheral Nervous System

Spinal Cord
Sensory Division

Hemisphere

Brain Stem

Frontal lobe,
Parietal lobe,
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe

Thalamus,
Hypothalamus,
Pons, Medulla
oblongata

Motor Division

Somatic

Special

Somatic

AN S

Touch,
Pressure,
Pain,
Temperature

Smell,
Taste,
Hearing,
Equilibrium
Vision

Voluntary
Movement
of Skeletal
Muscles

Sympathetic,
Parasympathetic,
Enteric nervous
system

Somatosensoric

Somatomotoric

Autonomic Nervous System

Neuron

Structural feature of a neuron

include a cell body and two
types of cell processes:
dendrites and an axon

Structure of neuron:

Input zone (dendrites and cell body) : part where

incoming signals from other neurons are received

Trigger Zone (axon hillock): part where actions

potentials in undiminishing fashion, often over long
distances

Conducting zone (axon): part thet conducts action

potentials in undiminishing fashion, often over long
distance

Output zone (terminal axon): part that releases a

neurotransmitter that influences other cells

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

1. Nervous tissue can be grouped into white and gray
matter

White matter consist of myelinated axons and functions to

propagate action potentials

Gray matter consist of collection of neuron cell bodies or

unmyelinated axons. Axons synapse with neuron cell bodies,
which is functionally the site of integration in nervous system

2. White matter forms nerves tract in the CNS and nerves

in the PNS. Gray matter forms cortex and nuclei in the
CNS and ganglia in the PNS

ELECTRIC SIGNALS
Electrical properties of cells result from the ionic concentration
differences across the plasma membrane and form the
permeability characteristics of the plasma membrane

Representative concentrations of the Principal Cations and Anions

in Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids of Vertebrates
Ions

Intracellular Fluids (mEq.L-) Extracellular Fluids (mEq.L-)

Cations (Positive)
K+
Na+
Ca2+
Others

148
10
<1
41

5
142
5
3

Total

200

155

Anions (Negative)
Proteins
ClOthers

56
4
140

16
103
36

Total

200

155

Concentration Differences Across the Plasma Membrane

1. The Sodium Potassium exchange pumps actively Na+ out and K+ into
the cell
2. The concentration of K+ and negatively charged proteins and other
molecules is higher inside, and concentration of Na+ and Cl- are higher
outside the cell
3. Negatively charged proteins and other negatively charged ions are
synthesized inside the cell and cannot diffuse out of it, and they repel
negatively charged Cl4. The permeability of the plasma membrane to ions is determined by
nongated and gated ion channels

Nongated K+ channels are more numerous than nongated Na+,

the plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ than to Na+ when it
rest

Gated ion channels include ligand-gated, voltage-gated, and othergated

The Sodium Potassium Exchange Pump

1

Permeability Characteristics of the Plasma Membrane

Ion Channel
1.

2.

Nongated ion channel, or leak channel

Are always open

Are responsible for the permeability of plasma membrane to ions at

rest (unstimulated)

Specific for every ions (but not absolute)

Gated ion channel

a.

Ligand-gated ion channel

b.

Voltage-gated ion channel

c.

Is opened if a molecule of ligand bind to its binding site

Opened by small voltage changes across the membrane

Other-gated ion channel

Opened by other than ligand or voltage changes (touch,

temperature, etc)

Ligand-gated ion
channel

a.

The Na+ channel has

receptor sites for the
ligand, acetylcholine.
When the receptor site
are not occupied by
acetylcholine,
the
channel remain closed

b.

When two molecules

of acetylcholine bind
to their receptor sites,
the channel opens to
allow Na+ diffuse into
the cell

Resting membrane Potential

Is a charge difference across membrane in an unstimulated condition
(rest state)

Establishing the Resting

Membrane Potential
K+ diffuse out of the cell because there
is a greater concentration of K+ inside
than outside the cell

K+ moves into the cell because the

positively charged ions are attracted to
negatively charged proteins and
anions

The resting membrane potential is

established when the movement of K+
out of the cell is equal to their
movement into the cell

Negatively
charged
proteins

Changing the Resting Membrane Potential

The resting membrane potential can be changed by alteration in
the K+ concentration gradient, changes in membrane permeability
to K+ and to Na+, and changes in extracellular Ca2+ concentration

Changing the resting ..

1.

K+ concentration gradient. Increasing K+ concentration in extracellular

fluid causes the resting membrane potential is less negative
(depolarization or hypoporarization). Decreasing K+ concentration in
extracellular fluid the resting membrane potential becomes more negative
(hyperpolarization).

2.

K+ membrane permeability. Although nongated K+ channel allow K+ to

diffuse across the membrane, resting membrane potential is not freely
permeable to K+. Increasing permeability allow the gated K + channels
open more K+ to diffuse out of the cell hyperpolarization

3.

Na+ membrane permeability. Resting membrane is not very permeable to

Na+. The opening of gated Na+ channels increase the permeability to Na +
the inside plasma membrane become more positive depolarization

4.

Extracellular Ca2+. Ca2+ ions are attracted by negatively charged plasma

membrane protein, include the voltage gated Na + channels, causes the
channel to close. Decreasing Ca2+ concentration lead the Ca2+ ions are
diffused away from the membrane and causes the voltage gated Na +
channel to open.

Depolarization: movement of
RMP toward zero

-85

0
mV

mV

Hyperpolarization: movement of
RMP further away from zero

-85
Increase in extracellular K+
concentration
Time

Decrease in extracellular
K+ concentration
Time

Changes in the Resting Membrane Potential Caused by Changes in

Extracellular K+ Concentration

Characteristics Responsible for the Resting Membrane Potential

1.

The number of charged molecules and ions inside and outside the cell is
nearly equal

2.

The concentration of K+ is higher inside than outside the cell, and the
concentration of Na+ is higher outside than inside the cell

3.

The plasma membrane is 50 100 times more permeable to K + than to

other positively charged ions such as Na+

4.

The plasma membrane is impermeable to large intracellular negatively

charged molecules such as proteins

5.

K+ tend to diffuse across the plasma membrane from the inside to outside
of the cell

6.

..

Characteristics ..

6.

Because negatively charged molecules cannot follow positively charged

K+, a small negative charge develops just inside the plasma membrane

7.

The negative charge inside the cell attracts positive K +. When the negative
charge inside the cell is great enough to prevent additional K + from
diffusing out of the cell through the plasma membrane, an equilibrium is
established

8.

The charge difference across the plasma membrane at equilibrium is

reflected as a difference in potentials, which is measured in millivolts
(mV)

9.

The RMP is proportional to the potential for K + to diffuse out of the cell
but to the actual rate of flow for K+

10. At equilibrium there is very little movement of K + or other ions across the
plasma membrane

Measuring the
Resting Membrane
Potential

Local Potentials
1.

A local potential is a small change in the resting membrane potential that

is confined to a small area of the plasma membrane.

2.

An increase of membrane permeability to Na+ can cause local

depolarization, and increase in membrane permeability to K + can result in
local hyperpolarization

3.

A local potential is termed graded because a stronger stimulus produce a

greater potential change than a weaker stimulus

4.

Local potentials can summate, or add together.

5.

A local potential decreases in magnitude as the distance from the

stimulation increases

0
mV

mV

-90

-90
1

Time
Successively stronger stimuli of short
duration from 1 4

Time
Two equal stimuli in short succession at
1 and 2

Local potentials are proportional to the stimulus strength. A weak stimulus applied
briefly causes a small depolarization, which quickly returns to the RMP.
Progressively stronger stimuli result in larger depolarization (left). A stimulus applied
to a cell causes a small depolarization. When a second stimulus is applied before the
depolarization disappears, the depolarization caused by the second stimulus is added
to the depolarization caused by the first to result in a larger depolarization (right)

Characteristic of Local Potentials

1.

A stimulus causes increased permeability of the membrane to Na +, K+, and

Cl-

2.

Increased permeability of the membrane to Na + results in depolarization.

Increased permeability of the membrane to K + or Cl- results in
hyperpolarization

3.

Local potentials are graded, that is, the size of the local potential is
proportional to the strength of the stimulus. Local potentials can also
summate. Thus, a local potential produced in response to a single
stimulus

4.

Local potentials are conducted in a decremental fashion, meaning that

their magnitude decreases as they spread over the plasma membrane.
Local potentials cannot be measured a few millimeters from the point of
stimulation

5.

A depolarizing local potential can cause an action potential

Action Potential
1.

An action potential is a larger change in RMP that spreads over the entire
surface of the cell

2.

Threshold is the membrane potential at which a local potential depolarizes

the plasma membrane sufficiently to produce an action potential.

3.

Action potentials occur in an all or none fashion. If the action

potential occurs at all, its of the same magnitude, no matter how strong
the stimulus

4.

Depolarization occurs as the inside of the membrane becomes more

positive because Na+ diffuse into the cell through voltage-gated ion
channels. Repolarization is the return of the membrane potential toward
the RMP because voltage-gated Na+ channels close and Na+ diffusion into
the cell slows to resting levels and because voltage-gated K + channels
continue to open and K+ diffuse out of the cell

The action potential consists of a depolarization and a repolarization phase, often

followed by a short period of hyperpolarization called afterpotential

Consecutive events of action potential

First Resting Membrane Potential

Voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed (the activation gates are closed and the
inactivation gates are open). Voltage-gated K+ channels are closed

Depolarization
Voltage-gated Na+ channels open because the activation gates open. Voltage-gated
K+ channels start to open. Depolarization results because the inward diffusion of
Na+ is much greater than the outward diffusion of K +

Repolarization
Voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed because the inactivation gates close.
Voltage-gated K+ channels are now open. Na+ diffusion into the cell stops and K+
diffusion out of the cell, causing repolarization

Afterpotential
Voltage-gated N+ channels are closed. Closure of the activation gates and opening of the
inactivation gates reestablish the resting condition for Na + channels. Diffusion of K+
through voltage-gated channels produces the afterpotential

Second Resting Membrane Potentials

The resting membrane potential is reestablished after the voltage-gated K +
channels close

Characteristics of the Action Potential

1.

Action potentials are produced when the local potential reaches the
threshold

2.

Action potentials are All or None

3.

Depolarization is a results of increased membrane permeability to Na + and

movement of Na+ into the cell. Activation gates of the voltage-gated Na +
channels open

4.

Repolarization is a result of decreased membrane permeability to Na + and

increased membrane permeability to K+, which stops Na+ movement into
the cell and increased K+ movement out of the cell. The activation gates
of the voltage-gated Na+ channels close, and the voltage-gated K +
channels open

5.

.
Characteristics .

5.

No action potential is produced by a stimulus, no matter how strong,

during the absolute refractory period. During the relative refractory
period a stronger-than-threshold stimulus can produced an action potential

6.

Action potentials are propagated, and for a given axon or muscle fiber the
magnitude of the action potential is constant

7.

Stimulus strength determines the frequency of action potentials

Refractory Period
1.

Refractory period is decreasing sensitivity of a membrane area, during

producing an action potential, to further stimulus

2.

The refractory period consists of absolute refractory period and relative

refractory period

3.

The absolute refractory period occurs from the beginning of the action
potential until near the end of repolarization.

4.

As long as the inactivation gates of voltage-gated Na + channels are closed,

further depolarization cannot occur

5.

The relative refractory period, follows the absolute refractory period.

6.

During relative refractory period, a stringer-than-thershold stimulus can

initiate another action potential

Refractory Period

Action Potential Frequency

1.

The action potential frequency is the number of action potentials

produced per unit of time in response to a stimulus

2.

The action potential frequency is directly proportional to stimulus

strength and to size of the local potential

3.

A subthreshold stimulus is any stimulus not strong enough to produce a

local potential that reaches threshold no action potential is produced

4.

A threshold stimulus produces a local potential thats just strong enough

to reach threshold and cause the production of a single action potential

5.

A maximal stimulus is just strong enough to produce a maximum

frequency of action potentials

6.

A submaximal stimulus includes all stimuli between threshold and the

maximal stimulus strength

Relationship between stimulus strength, local potential, and action potential

frequency. Each stimulus in this figure is stronger than the previous one

Propagation of Action Potentials

Saltatory conduction: Action propagation in a myelinated axon

The Synapse
1. Synapse which is a junction between two cells, is the site
where action potentials in one cell can cause the production
of action potentials in another cell.
2. The cell that carries action potential toward a synapse is
called the presynaptic cell, and the cell that carries action
potential away from the synapse is called the postsynaptic
cell
3. Two types of synapses: Electrical and Chemical

Electrical Synapses
1.

Electrical synapses are 2 nm gap junctions in which tubular proteins

called connexons allow local currents to move between cells that had the
same membrane

2.

At an electrical synapse, an action potential in one cell generates a local

current that causes an action potential in an adjacent cell.

3.

Electrical synapses are found in cardiac muscle and in many types of

smooth muscle.

Positively charged ions

Connexons

Local current

Gap junction

Inner surface of plasma

membrane

Electrical synapse are gap junctions in which the plasma membrane

of two cells come close together and are joined by connexons. An
action potential is one cell can generate local currents (positively
charged ions) that flow through the connexons to stimulate an action
potential in other cell

Chemical Synapses
1.

Anatomically, a chemical synapse has three components:

a.

The enlarged ends of axon are presynaptic terminals containing

synaptic vesicles

b.

The postsynaptic membranes contain receptors for neurotransmitter

c.

The synaptic cleft, a space, separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic

membrane

2.

An action potential arriving at the presynaptic terminal causes the release

of a neurotransmitter, which is diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds
to the receptors of the postsynaptic membrane

3.

The effect of neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane can be

stopped in several ways:

4.

a.

The neurotransmitter is broken down by an enzyme

b.

The neurotransmitter is taken up by the presynaptic terminal

c.

The neurotransmitter diffuses out of the synaptic cleft

4.

Neurotransmitter are specific for their receptors. Depending on the

receptors, neurotransmitter can be stimulatory or inhibitory

5.

Neuromodulators influence the likelihood that an action potential in a

presynaptic terminal will result in an action potential in a postsynaptic cell

6.

Depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane caused by an increase in

membrane permeability to Na+ is an excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)

7.

Hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membrane caused by increase in

membrane permeability to K+ is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP)

8.

Presynaptic inhibition decreases neurotransmitter release.

facilitation increases neurotransmitter release

Presynaptic

Chemical Synapse
1.

Action potential arriving at the

presynaptic
terminal
cause
voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to
open

2.

Ca2+ diffuse into the cell and

causes synaptic vesicles to release
acetylcholine

3.

Acetylcholine diffuses from the

presynaptic terminal across the
synaptic cleft

4.

Acetylcholine combine with

receptor site and causes ligandgated Na+ channel to open. Na+
diffuse into the cell and causes
depolarization.

Neurotransmitter Removal
Uncombined acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase into choline
and acetic acid

Neurotransmitter Removal
In some synapses, neurotransmitters are taken up whole into the
presynaptic terminal

Summation
1. Spatial summation

Spatial summation occurs when two action potentials arrive

simultaneously at two different presynaptic terminals that synapse
with the same postsynaptic neuron.

2. Temporal summation

Temporal summation results when two or more action potentials

arrive in very close succession at a single presynaptic terminal

3. Combined spatial and temporal summation

Spatial Summation
Action potential 1 and 2 cause the production of local depolarization at two
different dendrites. These local depolarizations summate at the axon hillock to
produce a local depolarization that exceeds threshold, resulting in an action
potential

Temporal summation
Two action potential arrive in close succession at the presynaptic membrane.
Before the first local depolarization returns to threshold, the second is
produced. They summate to exceed threshold and produce an action potential

Combined summation
Combined spatial and temporal summation with both excitatory postsynaptic
potentials and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. The outcome, which is the
product of summation, is determined by which influence is greater

Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators

1.

Some neuron can secrete more than one type of neurotransmitter that
secreted from each of its terminal

2.

Neuromodulators are substances released from neuron that can

presynaptically or postsynaptically influence the likelihood that an action
potential in presynaptic terminal will result in the production of an action
potential in the postsynaptic cell.

Substances That Are Neurotransmitter or Neuromodulators (or both)

Substance

Location

Effect

Acetylcholine

Brain, Spinal cord, Neuromuscular

junction, ANS synapse

Excitatory or inhibitory

Brain, Spinal cord, ANS synapse

Brain, Brainstem, Spinal cord
Distributed more restricted than
norepinephrine or serotonin, ANS
synapse
Brain, Hypothalamus, Spinal cord

Excitatory or inhibitory
Generally inhibitory
Generally excitatory

Amino acids
Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid
(GABA)

Most Neuron of the CNS

Glycine

Brain, Spinal cord

Glutamate and aspartate

Brain, Spinal cord

Majority of postsynaptic
inhibition in the brain,
some presynaptic
inhibition in the spinal
cord
Most postsynaptic
inhibition in the spinal
Cord
Excitatory

Monoamines
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Dopamine

Histamine

Generally inhibitory

Substances That Are Neurotransmitter or Neuromodulators (or both) continued

Substance

Location

Effect

Nitric oxide

Brain, Spinal cord, Adrenal Gland,

Intramural plexus, Nerve to penis

Excitatory

CNS, PNS
Brain, Spinal cord, Sensory neuron
associated with pain

Generally inhibitory
Generally excitatory

Neuropeptides
Endorphins and enkephalins
Substance P