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Industrial Aerodynamics: Mr.B.Navin Kumar Senior Lecturer Rajalakshmi Engineering College Thandalam-602 105
Industrial Aerodynamics: Mr.B.Navin Kumar Senior Lecturer Rajalakshmi Engineering College Thandalam-602 105
AERODYNAMICS
Mr.B.Navin Kumar
Senior Lecturer
Rajalakshmi Engineering College
Thandalam-602 105
UNIT - I
ATMOSPHERIC
BOUNDARY LAYER
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air, and the means (together with the smaller
ocean circulation) by which thermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth.
The large-scale structure of the atmospheric circulation varies from year to year, but the basic
climatological structure remains fairly constant. However, individual weather systems - mid-latitude
depressions, or tropical convective cells - occur "randomly and it is accepted that weather cannot be
predicted beyond a fairly short limit: perhaps a month in theory, or (currently) about ten days in
practice (see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect). Nonetheless, as the climate is the average of these
systems and patterns - where and when they tend to occur again and again -, it is stable over longer
periods of time.
As a rule, the "cells" of Earth's atmosphere shift polewards in warmer climates (e.g. interglacials
compared to glacial), but remain largely constant even due to continental drift. Tectonic uplift can
significantly alter major elements of it, however - for example the jet stream -, and plate tectonics shift
ocean currents. In the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic, indications of a third desert belt at the
Equator has been found; it was perhaps caused by convection. But even then, the overall latitudinal
pattern of Earth's climate was not much different from the one today.
LOCAL WINDS
Local winds blow over a much smaller area than global winds
and have a much shorter time span. Hot windsoriginate in vast
anticyclones over hot deserts and include the Santa Ana
(California), the Brickfielder (south-east Australia), the
Sirocco (Mediterranean), the Haboob (Sudan), the Khamsin
(Egypt), and the Harmattan (West Africa).
Modifier
Forest
Jungle
SandDesert
RockDesert
1.5
Plains
1.5
Tundra
Icesheet
Hills
Mountains
HighMountains
Swamp
Bog
City
1.3
Ocean
Lake
River
1.5
PavedRoad
DirtRoad
1.3
WIND SPEEDS-TURBULENCE
ROUGHNESS PARAMETERS
Ra: Ra is the arithmetic average of the absolute values of the roughness profile
ordinates. Also known as Arithmetic Average (AA), Center Line Average (CLA).
The average roughness is the area between the roughness profile and its mean
line, or the integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over the
evaluation length
Rz: Rz is the arithmetic mean value of the single roughness depths of
consecutive sampling lengths. Z is the sum of the height of the highest peaks and
the lowest valley depth within a sampling length.
Cutoff c: of a profile filter determines which wavelengths belong to roughness
and which ones to waviness.
Sampling Length: is the reference for roughness evaluation. Its length is equal to
the cutoff wavelength.
Traversing Length: is the overall length traveled by the stylus when acquiring
the traced profile. It is the total of Pre-travel, evaluation length and post travel
Evaluation Length: is the part of the traversing length from where the values of
the surface parameters are determined.
Pre-Travel: the first part of the traversing length.
Post-Travel: The last part of the traversing length
Aerodynamicists use wind tunnels to test models of proposed aircraft and engine components. During a test, the model
is placed in the test section of the tunnel and air is made to flow past the model. Various types of instrumentation are
used to determine the forces on the model. There are four main types of wind tunnel tests.
In some wind tunnel tests, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the model are measured directly. The model is
mounted in the tunnel on a special machine called a force balance. The output from the balance is a signal that is
related to the forces and moments on the model. Balances can be used to measure both the lift and drag forces. The
balance must be calibrated against a known value of the force before, and sometimes during, the test. Force
measurements usually require some data reduction or post-test processing to account for Reynolds number or Mach
number effects on the model during testing. It is very important in data reports to always specify the reference value of
variables used in data reduction.
In some wind tunnel tests, the model is instrumented with pressure taps and the component performance is calculated
from the pressure data. Total pressure measurement is the normal procedure for determining aircraft inlet performance.
Theoretically, the aerodynamic force on an aircraft model could be obtained using pressure instrumentation by
integrating the pressure times an incremental area around the entire surface of the model. But, in practice, pressure
integration is not used because of the large number of taps necessary to accurately resolve pressure variations. Airfoil
drag can be determined by integrating the total pressure deficit in the wake created by a wing model.
In some wind tunnel tests, the model is instrumented to provide diagnostic information about the flow of air around the
model. Diagnostic instrumentation includes static pressure taps, total pressure rakes, laser Doppler velocimetry, and hotwire velocity probes. A diagnostic test does not provide overall aircraft performance, but helps the engineer to better
understand how the fluid moves around and through the model. There are a variety of flow control devices that are
employed to improve performance of the aircraft, if the local flow conditions are known. Depending on the type of
instrumentation used in the experiment, steady state flow or unsteady, time-varying, flow information can be obtained.
The engineer must use some experience when employing flow diagnostic instrumentation to properly place the
instruments in regions of flow gradients or separations.
In some wind tunnel tests, flow visualization techniques are used to provide diagnostic information. Visualizaation
techniques include free stream smoke, laser sheet, or surface oil flow. The assumption is made that the flow
visualization medium moves exactly with the flow. Shadowgraphs or schlierin systems are used to visualize the shape
and location of shock waves in compressible flows. For low speed flows, tufts or surface oil indicate the flow direction
along the surface of a model.
UNIT - II
BLUFF BODY
AERODYNAMICS
A cylinder having mild variations in diameter along its span is subjected to controlled
excitation at frequencies above and below the inherent shedding frequency from the
corresponding two-dimensional cylinder. The response of the near wake is
characterized in terms of timeline visualization and velocity traces, spectra, and phase
plane representations. It is possible to generate several types of vortex formation,
depending upon the excitation frequency. Globally locked-in, three-dimensional vortex
formation can occur along the entire span of the flow. Regions of locally locked-in and
period-doubled vortex formation can exist along different portions of the span
provided the excitation frequency is properly tuned. Unlike the classical subharmonic
instability in free shear flows, the occurrence of period-doubled vortex formation does
not involve vortex coalescence; instead, the flow structure alternates between two
different states.
An experimental study of the flow around a cylinder with a single straight perturbation
was conducted in a wind tunnel. With this bluff body, positioned in a uniform
crossflow, the vortex shedding frequency and other flow characteristics could be
manipulated. The Strouhal number has been shown to be a function of the perturbation
angular position, theta _{rm p}, as well as the perturbation size and Reynolds number.
As much as a 50% change in Strouhal number could be achieved, simply by changing
theta _{rm p} by 1^ circ. The perturbation size compared to the boundary-layer
thickness, delta, was varied from approximately 1delta to about 20delta. The Reynolds
number was varied from 10,000 to 40,000. A detailed investigation of the characteristic
Strouhal number variation has shown that varying theta_{rm p} had a significant
influence on the boundary -layer separation and transition to turbulence.
The number of cars available on our planet is continuously increasing. But also
other factors are important for the emissions and the energy consumption: How
efficient is the motor of the car? How much fuel does it consume on a certain
distance? How long are the distances the car owner goes per year in average? What
driving style does the driver exhibit? What is the average speed?
The energy needed foroptimal consumption of a car is not easy to calculate. The
most simple physical equation for the description of accelerating a body of the mass
m from the velocity v = 0 to the velocity v is the kinetic energy equation:
The energy required to accelerate a body increases with the mass of the body and
with the square of the velocity gained. We can deduce this formula from four simple
physical expressions:
a)work / energy = force distance (E = F s)
b)force = mass acceleration (F = m a)
c)acceleration = change of velocity with time (a = dv/dt)
d)velocity = change of distance with time (v = ds/dt)
If we change the velocity from 0 to v the energy invested over the distance s is given
according to:
The SI unit of an energy is 1 Joule [J] according to:
If the velocity of a mass is increasing continuously in time, which means 1 m/s after
1 second, 2 m/s after 2 seconds, we have a constant acceleration of 1 meter per
second squared. The force needed for this acceleration depends on the mass itself. If
the mass is 1 kg the required force is 1 Newton (N) = 1 kg 1 m/s 2. The total energy
required or the work we have to carry out depends on over which distance we
exacerbate the accelerating force. If it is one meter, the energy is 1 kg m 2/s2 = 1
Joule.
TRAIN AERODYNAMICS
UNIT - III
WIND ENERGY
COLLECTORS
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines Eole C, a 4200 kW Vertical axis Darrieus wind
turbine with 100 m rotor diameter at Cap Chat, Qubec, Canada. The machine (which
is the world's largest wind turbine) is no longer operational.
Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs as some people call them) are a bit like water
wheels in that sense. (Some vertical axis turbine types could actually work with a
horizontal axis as well, but they would hardly be able to beat the efficiency of a
propeller-type turbine).
The only vertical axis turbine which has ever been manufactured commercially at any
volume is the Darrieus machine, named after the French engineer Georges Darrieus
who patented the design in 1931. (It was manufactured by the U.S. company FloWind
which went bankrupt in 1997). The Darrieus machine is characterised by its C-shaped
rotor blades which make it look a bit like an eggbeater. It is normally built with two or
three blades
BETZ COEFFICIENT
Betz was able to develop an expression for Cp in terms of the induction factors. This
is done by the velocity relations being substituted into power and power is substituted
into the coefficient of power definition. The relationship Betz developed is given
below:
Cp = 4a(1 a)2
The Betz limit is defined by the maximum value that can be given by the above
formula. This is found by taking the derivative with respect to the axial induction
factor, setting it to zero and solving for the axial induction factor. Betz was able to
show that the optimum axial induction factor is one third. The optimum axial
induction factor was then used to find the maximum coefficient of power. This
maximum coefficient is the Betz limit. Betz was able to show that the maximum
coefficient of power of a wind turbine is 16/27. Airflow operating at higher thrust will
cause the axial induction factor to rise above the optimum value. Higher thrust cause
more air to be deflected away from the turbine. When the axial induction factor falls
below the optimum value the wind turbine is not extracting all the energy it can. This
reduces pressure around the turbine and allows more air to pass through the turbine,
but not enough to account for lack of energy being extracted.
The derivation of the Betz limit shows a simple analysis of wind turbine
aerodynamics. In reality there is a lot more. A more rigorous analysis would include
wake rotation, the effect of variable geometry. The effect of air foils on the flow is a
major component of wind turbine aerodynamics. Within airfoils alone, the wind
turbine aerodynamicist has to consider the effect of surface roughness, dynamic stall
tip losses, solidity, among other problems.
UNIT IV
BUILDING AERODYNAMICS
The design of buildings must account for wind loads, and these are
affected by wind shear. For engineering purposes, a power law wind
speed profile may be defined as follows:
Ventilating (the V in HVAC) is the process of "changing" or replacing air in any space to provide high
indoor air quality (i.e. to control temperature, replenish oxygen, or remove moisture, odors, smoke,
heat, dust, airborne bacteria, and carbon dioxide). Ventilation is used to remove unpleasant smells and
excessive moisture, introduce outside air, to keep interior building air circulating, and to prevent
stagnation of the interior air.
Ventilation includes both the exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the
building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in
buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural
types.[
"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is used to control indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors,
and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in
humid climates much energy is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of a fan or other
mechanical system. It can be achieved with openable windows or trickle vents when the spaces to
ventilate are small and the architecture permits. In more complex systems warm air in the building can
be allowed to rise and flow out upper openings to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing cool outside
air to be drawn into the building naturally through openings in the lower areas. These systems use very
little energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants' comfort. In warm or humid months, in
many climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural ventilation may not be possible so
conventional air conditioning systems are used as backups. Air-side economizers perform the same
function as natural ventilation, but use mechanical systems' fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems
to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate.
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