Methods Expressing

Concentration
g/L :

)(1

)wt.(g
VL

=Conc.

mg/mL :

)(2

)wt.(mg
VmL

=Conc.

 mg/L ppm :

)(3

)wt.(mg
VL

=Conc.

g/L ppb :

)(4

wt. g
Conc.
VL

 : 5g
500mL
g/L ppm ppb

wt.(g)
Conc.(g/L)
VL

5
Conc.(g/L)
0.5
g/L 10=
mg/L 10000=
10000ppm=
107g /L=
ppb 107=

 1-3-2
1 - 2-3-1 )% (W/W

100g

)(5

wt.(g) of solu.
x 100
=(W/W)%
wt.(g) of sol.

 :
200g 25g

25g
W/W %
100
200g
12.5%

 :
5g 100mL
1g/mL
wt.(g) of solv.=100
mL 1g/mL
=100g
=wt.(g) of sol.
100g+5g=105g

5
(W/W)%
100
105
= 4.76%

 2 -1-3-2 )% (V/V

mL
100mL

)(6

VmL of solu.
x 100
=(W/V)%
VmL of sol.

 :
50mL 200mL.

of sol.=50 + 200
=250mL

50
(V/V)%
100
250
= 20%

 -3 -2 )% (W/V
g
100mL

)(7

wt.(g) of solu.
x 100
=(W/V)%
VmL of sol.

)Molarity (M

1-3-3

) (

)(8

no. of moles
=M
VL

)(9

)wt.(g
=M
x
Mo.wt.

)(10

1
VL

)wt.(g
1000
x
=M
Mo.wt
V mL

 : 4g NaOH
500mL .Mo.wt.= 40 g mole-1

wt.(g) 1000
M

Mo.wt VmL

4 1000
M

40 500
= 0.2

 1-3-4

)Normality ( N

) (.g.eq

)(13
)(14
)(15

no. of g.eq.
VL
1
VL

=N

)wt.(g
=N
x
eq.wt.

x 1000
V mL

)wt.(g
eq.wt

=N

 : HCl
g/L 4.01

wt.(g) 1
N

eq.wt. VL
4.01 1
N

36.45. 1
0.11

Molality ( m) 1-3-5

no. moles of solu..
m=
Wt.(g) of solv.(Kg)
wt.(g)
m=
Mo.wt.

1
wt.(Kg) of solv.

wt.(g)
1000
x
m=
Mo.wt
wt.(g) of solv.

(18)
(19)

(20)

 :
8g NaOH 500g
.
)wt.(g
1000

)Mo.wt wt.of solv.(g

8 1000
m

40 500

=m 0.4

 1-3-6 ) ( Mole
fraction

)(21
)(22

n1
n2

n1 +
n2

n2

n1 +

= X1
= X2

 : moles 2
moles 6
.

=0.25

2
= X1
2+ 6

=0.75

6
= X2
2+ 6

 7 -1-3

dilution ratio

:
( HCl) 1:1 HCl
( H2SO4) 4:1 H2SO4
( H3PO4) 3:2 H3PO4

 ) (M ).( N

)(23

x M

Mo.wt
=N
eq.wt

)(24
)(25

1
x
VL
)wt.(g
VL

)wt.(g
eq.wt

=N

= N x eq.wt

Conc.=

wt.(g)

(26)

VL

(25) ( 26)

Conc.= N x eq.wt.

(27)

)(28

Conc.= M x Mo.wt.

 g/L
):%(W/W

)(33

Conc.= (W/W)% x d of sol. x 10


):%(W/W

)(34

(W/W)% x d of sol. x 10
eq.wt.

=N


):%(W/W

)(35

(W/W)% x d of sol. x 10
Mo.wt.

=M

 ) %(V/W
):%(W/W
()% W/W)% = (W/V
)(37

d of sol.

 ) %(V/W

)(38

(W/V)% x 10
=N
eq.wt.

 ) %(V/W

)(39

(W/V)% x 10
=M
Mo.wt.

 1-4 :

:
=

C2 V2 = C1 V1

 : NaOH 5mL)1.5
(g/mL 15
.mL

C2 V2 = C1 V1
C2 15 = 1.5 5
g/mL = C2 0.5





Mixing Rule ) ( %a
) ( %b ) ( %c
a>b .a>c>b

)(c-b
c
)(a-c

 : %40
%96
).(d=1.495 g/mL
96 %

)(40 -0.0
40
)(96 - 40

0.0 %

g 40 HNO3 96% g 56
% 40 . HNO3
mL 26.76
HNO3 mL 56

: % 80
%96 , %75
HNO3 %96 g/mL 1.495
HNO3 %80 g/mL 1.452

 :

) ( %) (d ) ....(Mo.wt
) ( M ) ( N
:

d % 10
N
eq.wt.

 1 -3 Significant Figures

13.4mL
13.5 13.4
Uncertainty

.
-1 1.20



13.5mL 0.0135L
.
-2

1.20X106
1,210,000 .
- 3 .

.
1.325178
.1.325

13.2357 13.236
)(5


1.3735 1.3725
1.3741.372 .
- 4


21.1 3.216 0.025
21.1 3.20.1
.
- 5
2.361.187213.11.236 2.41.23.11.2
.
- 6

12.7
1.1038.
. 1.104

 2 -3 .
* Determinate errors
.
* Indeterminate errors
.

.
:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .

 2 - 2 -3 :



.

 3 2 -3

Accuracy


.
Precision

.

 True value

) (

.
Observed value

)(n
X1X2X3.Xn

Error

.E
Rllative error
100
Meen 0r Average

X1 X 2 ..... X n
X
n

Mode
)(
Range

)( .
Medium


.

Deviation
)(
)d (

) ( Average deviation

d

d Xi X

) d ( Xi X

d
n
n

 Standard deviation

)(S
) )
n>50
2

) ( Xi X
n 1

2
(

)
Xi X
n

n 1

n 1

 Relative Standard
) deviation(r.s.d

100

100

r.s.d
r.s.d

 4 2 -3 :

Y =

1


-2

3


4 ) (
%50
) ( %50

1
1 x
y
exp

2
2
2

 5
) ( +3 )( -3
-6 ) (
:
%68.3
) ( +) ( -
95.4%
)( +2) ( -2
% 99.7
)( +3) ( -3

0.01
ppm 0.286

%68.3
0.2860.01 %95.4
0.2860.02 %99.7
. 0.2860.03

 :

10.5, 8.5, 8.5, 9.0, 8.5, 9.1, 9.5, 8.9, 8.5, 9.6, 8.4
g/L

Xi

(Xi - )
8.4
9.6
8.5
8.9
9.5
9.1
8.5
9.0
8.5
8.5
10.5

-0.6
0.6
-0.5
-0.1
0.5
0.1
-0.5
0.0
-0.5
-0.5
1.5

(Xi - )2
0.36
0.36
0.25
0.01
0.25
0.01
0.25
0.00
0.25
0.25
2.25

(x I x ) 4.24
2

S
S

2
(

)
Xi X
n 1

4.24
0.65
10

r.s.d

100

0.65
r.s.d
100 6.5%
10

 5 2 -3 The Confidenece :
Limits
ts
Confidene Limits X
n

t

.

 :

%93.58
%93.43 %93.50
.
.%95

- 93.43+93.58+93.50
=93.50
X =
3

S= 0.075
ts
Confidene Limits X
n

Confidene Limits 93.50

= 93.50 0.19%

4.303 0.75
3

n
36.657
9.925
5.841
4.604
4.0032
3.707
3.499
3.355
3.250
3.169
3.106
3.055
3.012
2.977
2.947
2.845
2.787
2.752
2.704
2.660

(n-1)

12.706
4.303
3.182
2.776
2.571
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
2.228
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
131..2
2.086
2.060
2.042
2.21
2.000

90%
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.132
2.015
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
1.812
1.796
1.782
1.177
1.761
1.753
1.725
1.708
1.967
1.684
1.671
1.654

95%

99%

1
2
3
4

2
3
4
5

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
20
25
30
40
60
1.960

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
21
26
31
41
61
2.576+ 1