Stereographic Projection

Want to represent 3-D crystal on 2-D paper

Use a Projection

A cubic xl like our model

Note poles (normals to xl
face planes)
Fig 6.3 of Klein (2002)
Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons

Spherical Projection

Click to run animation Case Klein animation

for Mineral Science, John Wiley & Sons

Stereographic Projection
The outer sphere
is a spherical
projection
Plot points
where poles
intersect sphere
Planes now =
points
But still 3-D
Fig 6.3

Stereographic Projection
Gray plane =
Equatorial Plane
Want to use it as
our 2-D
representation
and project our
spherical poles
back to it
This is a 2-D
stereographic
projection

Fig 6.5 of Klein (2002)

Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons

Stereographic Projection
D and E are spherical
D' and E' are
stereographic
Distance GD' = f()
as 90 D G
as 0 D O

Fig 6.6 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley and Sons

Stereographic Projection
We can thus use
the angles and
calculate the 2-D
distances from
the center to find
the stereographic
poles directly
Or we can use
special graph
paper and avoid
the calculation

Fig 6.5 of Klein (2002)

Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons

Inclined Planes and Great Circles

Great Circle as stereographic
projection calculated from angle
Great circles on stereographic
projection = locus of all points
projected from the intercept of an
inclined plane to the equatorial plane
(bowl analogy)- structural geology
Use your hand for dip and a pencil for
the pole of (011) at 45o from vertical

This is the graph

paper for avoiding
calculating the
distance from the
center as a function of
each time
It is graduated in
increments of 20o

Back to Fig. 2.42

(111) (100) (111)
(011) (100) all
coplanar
(= zone)
Thus all poles in a
zone are on the
same great circle!!
How do we find the
zone axis??
Fig 6.3 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral Science, John Wiley & Sons

Small circles
Gives angles between any two points on a great
circle
= the angle
between 2
coplanar
lines!!
20o

The Wulff Net

Combines
great circles
and small
circles in 2o
increments

Stereographic Projection
How to make a stereographic projection of our crystal
Use a contact goniometer to measure the interfacial
angles (also measures normals: poles)

Fig 6.2 of Klein (2002)

Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons

Plot Cardboard Model

Isometric System (p. 93)
Crystallographic Axes
The crystal forms of classes of the isometric system
are referred to three axes of equal length that make
right angles with each other. Because the axes are
identical, they are interchangeable, and all are
designated by the letter a. When properly oriented,
one axis, a1, is horizontal and oriented front to
back, a2 is horizontal and right to left, and a3 is
90
+a 1
vertical.
90
+a 2

+a 3

90

Plot (100) (001) (010) (110) (101) (011):

= top half
o = bottom half
How plot (111) ?
a) Plot (110) & then plot (111) between (110) and (001)
(110) (111) = 36.5o
- go in from primitive
b) No measure technique:
(111) must lie between (110) & (001) (zone add rule)
also between (100) & (011)
thus intersection of great circles (111)

The finished product

Fig 6.8 of Klein (2002)

Manual of Mineral Science, John
Wiley and Sons

face poles and principal zones

symmetry elements

Once finished can determine the angles

between any 2 faces w/o measuring.
What is (100) (111) ?
(54.5o)
(111) (111) ?
(70o)

Model #75How can you use the position of the (111)

face on a stereonet to determine:
a/b?
b/c?
a/c?

Twinning

Rational symmetrically-related intergrowth

Lattices of each orientation have definite
crystallographic relation to each other

Twinning
Aragonite twin
Note zone at twin
plane which is
common to each
part
Although aragonite is
orthorhombic, the twin looks
hexagonal due to the 120o O-C-O
angle in the CO3 group

Redrawn from Fig 2-69 of Berry,

Mason and Dietrich, Mineralogy,
Freeman & Co.

Twinning

Twin Operation is the symmetry operation which relates the two

(or more) parts (twin mirror, rot. axis)

1) Reflection (twin plane)

Examples: gypsum fish-tail, models 102, 108
2) Rotation (usually 180o) about an axis common to
both (twin axis): normal and parallel twins.
Examples: carlsbad twin, model 103
3) Inversion (twin center)

The twin element cannot be a symmetry element of the

individuals. Twin plane can't be a mirror plane of the crystal
Twin Law is a more exact description for a given type
(including operation, plane/axis, mineral)

Contact & Penetration twins

Both are simple twins only two parts

Multiple twins (> 2 segments repeated by same law)

Cyclic twins - successive planes not parallel
Polysynthetic twins
Albite Law
in plagioclase

Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Growth increment cluster adds w/ twin
orientation
Epitaxial more stable than random
Not all epitaxis twins

Usually simple & penetration

synneusis a special case

Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Feldspars:
Plagioclase: Triclinic Albite-law-striations
a-c

a-c

Twinning
Mechanisms:
1) Growth
Feldspars:
Plagioclase: Triclinic Albite-law-striations

Twinning

cyclic twinning in
inverted low quartz

Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary)
SiO2: High T is higher symmetry

High Quartz P6222

Low Quartz P3221

Twinning
Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary twins)
Feldspars:
Orthoclase (monoclinic) microcline (triclinic)
Monoclinic a-c
(high-T)
b

a-c

Triclinic
(low-T)
b

Twinning
Mechanisms:
2) Transformation (secondary)
Feldspars:
K-feldspar: large K lower T of transformation
tartan twins

Interpretation wrt petrology!

Twinning
Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress
greater stress gliding, and finally rupture
Also in feldspars.
Looks like transformation, but the difference in
interpretation is tremendous

Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress. Plagioclase

Mechanisms:
3) Deformation (secondary)
Results from shear stress. Calcite

X-ray Crystallography
X-ray wavelengths are on the same order of
magnitude as atomic spacings.
Crystals thus makes excellent diffraction gratings
Can use the geometry of the x-ray spots to
determine geometry of grating (ie the crystal)

X-ray Crystallography
X-ray generation

W Cathode

Cu Anode

(-)

(+)

electrons

X-rays

X-ray Crystallography
X-ray generation
Continuous & characteristic spectrum (Fig. 7.2)

Continuous from E loss of collisions

Characteristic is quantized

X-ray Crystallography
Destructive and constructive interference of waves
Bragg Equation:
in phase

in phase

X-ray Crystallography
n=2dsin
n is the order
As soon as the crystal is rotated, the beam ceases
(This is diffraction, not reflection)
Only get diffraction at certain angles!
Relation between and d and
Y

X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
1) Single-Crystal: Laue Method
Several directions simultaneously fulfill Bragg equations
Good for symmetry, but poor for analysis because distorted

Fig 7.39 of Klein (2002) Manual of Mineral

Science, John Wiley and Sons

X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
1) Single-Crystal:

Precession

Use motors to move crystal & film to satisfy Bragg

equations for different planes without distortions

Fig 7.40 of Klein (2002)

Manual of Mineral Science,
John Wiley and Sons

X-ray Crystallography
Methods:
2) PowderEasiest
Infinite orientations at once, so only need to vary

Cameras and diffractometers